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A  HANDBOOK  TOR  THL  MAN 
WHO  KELPS  COWS  TOR  PROflT 

THOMAS  ^WILLOUGHBY 

X       IHC  5LRVICL  BUREAU       X 

HARVESTER    BUILDING  CHICAGO 


Copyrighted  1912,  by  the 
International  Harvester  Company  of  America 

(Incorporated) 
Chicago  USA 


THE  GOLDEN  STREAM 
THE  SELECTION  OF  GOOD  COWS 

[HOOD  cows  are  the  basis  of  profitable  dairying,  and  the 
ability  to  select  them  is  of  utmost  importance  to  the 
dairyman.  The  use  of  the  Babcock  test  and  a  scale  is 
the  only  certain  way  to  tell  just  how  much  milk  and 
butter-fat  a  cow  is  producing.  But  these  alone  do  not 
tell  what  she  is  capable  of  producing,  nor  is  it  possible 
to  use  this  test  in  .many  cases.  Because  of  poor  feed 
and  lack  of  proper  care,  a  cow  capable  of  producing  a 
urge  profit,  would  probably  not  make  a  very  good  showing  if  subjected 
o  a  test  consisting  of  weighing  and  testing  her  milk.  To  be  of  value, 
ich  a  test  must  extend  through  several  weeks  or  months,  because  one 
>r  several  niilkings  do  not  demonstrate  a  cow's  value.  To  be  profit- 
ible,  she  must  be  a  persistent  milker. 

Experience  and  observation  show  that  there  is  a  close  relation  between 
information  and  producing  power  in  dairy  cows,  just  as  there  is  in 
;her  animals.  No  man  would  attempt  to  make  a  race  horse  out  of  a 
ieavy  Percheron,  neither  would  he  expect  to  do  heavy  draft  work  with 
light  trotting  horse.  Both  of  these  types  are  very  good  for  certain 
urposes,  but  not  at  all  adapted  to  others.  The  same  is  true  with  cows. 
:  he  function  of  the  beef-producing  animal  is  to  lay  on  flesh,  whereas  that 
:  the  dairy  cow  is  to  produce  milk. 

There  are  three  qualifications  necessary  to  the  good  judge  of  dairy 
ittle  and  they  are :  a  knowledge  of  what  kind  of  conformation  makes 
>r  the  greatest  production  ;  a  trained  eye  ;  and  —  judgment. 

A  cow  of  perfect  type  is  seldom  if  ever  found;    therefore,  in  judg- 

ug  the  value  of  a  cow  a  man  must   understand   the   relative   import- 

.  ice  of  different   features  of   her   conformation.     He  must   know  that 

finely  shaped   udder   does  not   always   make    a  good   cow  ;    that   a 

Tetty  head   or   a   skin  of  fine  texture  do  not  overcome  the   disadvan- 

.ges  of  a  weak  constitution  or  lack  of  capacity  to  consume  enough 

ed  to  produce  a  large  flow  of  milk. 

In  teaching  the  judging  of  dairy  cattle  and  other  livestock,  score 
irds  are  used  on  which  100  represents  the  standard  of  perfection, 
hese  score  cards  are  very  helpful,  for  the  purpose  of  developing 
systematic  way  of  picking  out  the  good  and  bad  features  of  an 
limal  and  to  make  it  easier  for  the  beginner  to  locate  the  different 
jints  to  be  considered.  After  the  eye  becomes  trained  and  the 
eal  type  becomes  fixed  in  the  mind,  the  score  card  can  be  dis- 
irded.  The  score  card  commonly  used,  and  a  picture  of  an  excellent 
•pe  of  dairy  cow  with  the  different  features  of  her  conformation  pointed 
it,  will  be  found  on  subsequent  pages  of  this  book. 


2811904 


Side  View  of  a  Dairy  Cow.     Wedge  shape  indicated  by  stars 

In  judging  a  cow  it  is  well  to  go  about  the  work  systematically,  and 
consider  her  in  sections.  These  are  classed  under  the  heads  of  general 
appearance,  head,  forequarters,  body,  hindquarters,  and  mammary 
development. 

General  Appearance  —  Fifteen  points  out  of  100  are  given  to  general 
appearance.  Viewed  from  the  sides  and  front  or  rear,  the  outlines  of 
the  cow  are  similar  to  those  of  wedges.  The  bases  and  points  of 
these  wedges  are  indicated  in  accompanying  illustrations. 

The  dairy  cow  should  be  thin, 
angular,  and  loose-jointed.  At  the 
same  time  she  should  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  strength  and  vitality. 
She  should  be  thin  because  she  is 
turning  a  large  part  of  the  feed 
she  eats  into  milk,  not  because 
she  is  poorly  fed  or  diseased.  In 
disposition  she  should  be  quiet,  yet 
keenly  alive  to  what  is  going  on 
about  her.  Her  skin  should  be  soft 
and  pliable  with  an  abundance  of 
secretion,  and  the  hair  fine. 

Head  —  The  head  should  be  clean 
cut  and  refined.  The  good  muzzle 
is  large  with  large,  open  nostrils. 
A  small  narrow  muzzle  indicates 
a  weak  constitution  and  a  lack  of 
capacity  for  consuming  larger  quan- 
tities of  feed.  The  face  extends  from 
the  muzzle  to  the  forehead  and 
'^IWHBBP'*  should  be  of  medium  length  and 

clean    cut.     Such    a    face    indicates 

Rear  View  of  a  Dairy  Cow.    Wedge         refinement  and  dairy  temperament. 
shape  indicated  by  stars  A  common  defect  is  a  long,  "horsey' 


face,  whicu  10  generally  accompanied  by  a  narro\v  forehead  The 
forehead  should  be  broad  and  slightly  dished.  A  broad  forehead 
indicates  the  well-developed,  nervous  system  found  in  the  heavy  milker. 

Feel  the  lower  jaw  and  see  that  it  is  clean  cut,  strong,  and  firmly 
attached  to  the  upper  jaw.  Large,  bright  eyes  indicate  intelligence. 

Forequarters  —  The  neck  should  be  thin  and  free  from  loose, 
flabby  skin.  A  coarse,  beefy  neck  and  throat  indicate  iack  of  dairy 
character  and  should  be  discriminated  against.  The  withers  should 
be  thin  and  sharp.  The  shoulders  should  slope  outward,  giving  a  large 
chest  capacity.  The  fore  legs  should  be  straight  and  clean  cut.  They 
should  be  set  well  apart  to  allow  ample  chest  capacity. 

Body  —  In  this  part  of  the  animal  are  located  the  vital  organs  and 
the  digestive  organs,  consequently  the  conformation  here  is  very 
important.  Capacity  to  consume  large  quantities  of  feed  is  indicated 
by  a  large,  deep  barrel.  The  ribs  should  be  well  sprung.  A  com- 
mon defect  is  that  the  ribs  do  not  spring  out  enough  as  they  extend  down. 
The  result  is  that,  while  fairly  deep,  the  barrel  is  narrow  and  consequently 
lacking  in  capacity.  In  passing  the  hand  over  the  ribs  they  should  be 
found  set  well  apart;  the  last  two  or  three  ribs  should  be  sufficiently  far 
apart  to  permit  two  or  three  fingers  to  be  inserted  between  them. 

In  examining  the  back,  stand  off   a   pace  or  two  and  note  whether 
it  is  straight  or  not.     A  slight  sagging  in  the  back  is  often  found  and, 
while  this  should  not  be  discriminated  against  too  severely,   it    is  an 
indication  of  weakness.     Pass  the  hand  along  the  spine  and  see  that  the 
vertebrae  are  not  closely  joined.     The  lateral  nerves  from  the  spinal  cord 
pass  out  between  the  vertebrae  and 
ample  space  for  this  is  necessary,  as 
nervous  development  is' very  impor- 
tant  to    the    dairy   cow.     The    loin 
should  be  broad,  long,  and  have  the 
appearance  of  strength.     Weak,  nar- 
row loins  are  very  common. 

A  deep,  broad,  floored  chest  is  one 
of  the  best  indications  of  constitu- 
tion. The  depth  can  be  noted  by 
standing  back  a  few  paces  from  the 
cow ;  but  in  judging  the  width  of  the 
chest,  pass  the  hand  under  the  body 
just  back  of  the  forelegs.  In  many 
cases  it  will  be  found  that  cows 
which  have  a  deep  chest  are  nar- 
row in  this  part ;  such  conformation 
should  be  discriminated  against,  as 
depth  alone  is  not  sufficient  to  insure 
ample  room  for  the  heart  and  lungs. 

Hindquarters — The  hips  should 
be  prominent  and  wide  apart.  The 
rump  should  be  high,  long  and  carry 
well  out  behind.  A  common  defect 

Wedge  shape  indicated  by  stars  as  seen 
IS    a    rump   that    slopes    down.      The  when  looking  along  the  animal's  back 


position  of  the  pin  bones  and  the  rump  are  closely  related.  The  rump 
should  be  well  arched  and  the  pin  bones  set  well  apart,  as  this  is  a  great 
help  towards  easy  parturition.  The  tail  is  a  good  indication  of  quality. 
A  long,  thin,  tapering  tail  is  desirable,  while  a  thick,  coarse  tail  is  an 
indication  of  coarseness  throughout  the  animal.  The  hind  legs  should  be 
trim  and  set  well  apart.  Hind  legs  that  are  crowded  close  together  are 
objectionable,  as  they  limit  the  space  for  the  udder.  The  thighs  should 
be  thin  and  practically  all  the  width  and  flesh  carried  well  up.  Thick, 
chunky  thighs  are  to  be  discriminated  against,  as  they  indicate  a  ten- 
dency to  beefiness  and  reduce  the  space  for  udder  development. 

Mammary  Development — A  large,  well-shaped,  well-placed  udder  is 
of  the  utmost  importance.  This  part  of  the  cow  should  be  very  carefully 
examined,  as  a  large  part  of  the  value  of  the  cow  will  be  determined  by 
the  formation  of  her  udder  and  milk  veins.  On  the  score  card  30  points 
of  a  possible  100  are  given  to  the  mammary  development. 

Look  at  the  udder  from  the  sides  and  the  rear  and  note  its  general 
shape  and  the  manner  of  attachment  in  front  and  in  rear.  The  floor  or 
bottom  of  the  udder  should  be  straight  and  extend  well  forward.  It 
should  also  extend  well  back.  It  should  be  attached  well  up  in  the  rear. 
The  quarters  should  be  balanced  and  the  teats  squarely  placed. 

While  size  is  very  important,  a  careful  examination  should  be  made 
to  see  that  the  size  is  not  due  to  meatiness  or  coarseness.  A  cow  with  a 
large,  coarse,  meaty  udder  is,  as  a  rule,  neither  a  heavy  nor  a  persistent 
milker.  The  udder  should  be  soft  and  of  a  very  fine,  spongy  texture. 
When  milked  out,  it  should  collapse  into  numerous  folds.  Examine  the 
teats  and  see  that  they  are  evenly  placed  and  of  medium  and  uniform 
size.  Milk  out  a  few  streams  and  see  that  the  openings  are  free  from 
obstructions.  Too  small  openings  are  undesirable,  as  they  make  the  cow 
hard  to  milk. 

The  milk -veins,  which  extend  from  the  udder  forward  and  pass  into 
the  body  through  openings  in  the  body  wall  known  as  milk  wells,  indicate 
the  amount  of  blood  that  passes  through  the  udder.  The  supply  of 
blood  to  the  udder  determines  the  flow  of  milk  the  udder  will  secrete, 
and  therefore  an  examination  of  the  milk  veins  is  important.  They 
should  be  large,  tortuous,  extend  well  forward  along  the  cow's  belly, 
and  have  numerous  branches.  The 
milk  wells  or  openings  through 
which  the  veins  pass  into  the  body 
should  be  as  numerous  as  the 
veins  and  branches. 

After  the  details  of  the  ani- 
mal's conformation  have  been 
carefully  gone  over,  the  judge 
should  step  back  a  few  paces  and 
walk  around  the  animal  several 
times,  and  in  this  way  review  the 
points  he  has  gone  over  and  weigh 
the  value  or  lack  of  value  of  the 
good  features  or  defects  discov- 
ered in  the  examination.  A  large,  well  shaped,  well  placed  udder 

7 


THE  SCORE  CARD  FOR  JUDGING  DAIRY  COWS 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


HEAD— 8  Points 


1.  Muzzle,  broad __ 

2.  Jaw,  strong,  firmly  joined 

3.  Face,  medium  length,  clean ... 

4.  Forehead,  broad  between  eye  dishing 

5.  Eyes,  large,  full,  mild  and  bright 

6.  Ears,  medium  size,  fine  texture,  secretions  oily  and  abun- 

dant, yellow  color 

FOREQUARTERS— 10  Points 

7.  Throat,  clean 

8.  Neck,  long,  spare,  smoothly  joined  to  shoulders,  free  from 

dewlap 

9.  Withers,  narrow,  sharp 

10.  Shoulders,  sloping,  smooth;  brisket,  light .  __ 

11.  Fore  Legs,  straight,  clean,  well  set  under  body 

BODY— 25  Points 

12.  Crops,  free  from  fleshiness . 

13.  Chest,  deep,  roomy;  floor  broad 

14.  Back,  straight,  strong;  vertebrae  open 

15.  Ribs,  long,  deep  and  well  sprung 

10.  Barrel,  deep,  long,  capacious 

17.  Loin,  broad,  strong .  _ 

HINDQUARTERS— 12  Points 

18.  Hips,  prominent,  wide  apart ._ 

19.  Rump,  long,  level,  not  sloping 

20.  Pin  Bones,  wide  apart  _  _  _ 

21.  Tail,  neatly  set  on,  long,  tapering 

22.  Thighs,  spare,  not  fleshy 

23.  Hind  Legs,  well  apart,  giving  ample  room  for  udder 

MAMMARY  DEVELOPMENT— 30  Points 

24.  Udder,  large,  very  flexible,  attached  high  behind,  carrying 

well  forward;  quarters  even 

25.  Teats,  wide  apart,  uniformly  placed,  convenient  size 

26.  Milk  Veins,  large,  tortuous,  extending  well  forward r. 

27.  Milk  wells,  large 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE— 15  Points 

28.  Disposition,  quiet,  gentle 

29.  Heaith,  thrifty,  vigorous .  ._     .. 

30.  Quality,  free  from  coarseness  throughout;  skin  soft,  pliable; 

secretions  abundant:  hair  fine.    .....    

31.  Temperament,  inherent  tendency  to  dairy  performance 

Total. 


Standard 


10 


Champion  Jersey  Cow.  National  Dairy  Show,  1911 


WHERE  THE  JERSEY  ORIGINATED 

Jersey  cattle  are  famous  the  world  over  for  their  rich  milk.  They 
were  the  first  dairy  breed  to  attract  public  attention  to  any  extent  in 
this  country.  This  breed  has  the  following  very  important  characteristics: 

1.  They  convert  a  large  part  of  the  food  consumed  into  milk  and  not 
into  flesh  and  fat. 

2.  They  give  the  richest  milk. 

3.  They  mature  at  an  early  age;  hence  they  can  be  bred  early,  thus 
avoiding  the  necessity  of  waiting  long  periods   before   they   come  into 
usefulness. 

Jerseys  are  the  most  famous  of  the  Channel  Island  breeds  and  they 
originated  on  the  Island  of  Jersey,  which  is  the  largest  and  most 
important  of  the  Channel  Islands.  This  island  is  only  about  eleven 
miles  from  east  to  west  and  averages  about  five  and  one-half  miles  in 
width.  The  land  is  rich  and  very  productive.  On  account  of  the 
Norman  law  of  succession,  Jersey  farms  have  become  very  much  sub- 
divided, and  it  is  only  occasionally  that  they  exceed  fifty  acres,  while  many 
are  less  than  three  acres.  The  farm  houses  and  cottages  are  remarkably 
neat  and  comfortable,  and  the  people,  whc  all  farm  their  own  land,  are 
perhaps  the  most  contented  and  prosperous  in  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  pasturage  is  very  rich  and  is  much  improved  by  the  application  of 
sea  weed  to  the  surface.  The  mainstay  of  the  island  is  its  cattle,  and 
this  breed  is  kept  pure  by  stringent  laws  against  the  importation  of 
foreign  animals.  The  milk  is  used  almost  exclusively  to  manufacture 
butter. 


12 


Champion  Hoist ein  Cow,  National  Dairy  Show,  1911 

THE  HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  CATTLE 

The  Holstein  cattle  have  been  in  existence  as  a  breed  of  dairy  cattle 
for  over  2,000  years.  A  people  known  as  Friesians,  who  came  presumably 
from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  settled  about  the  year  300  B.  C.  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Rhine,  Germany.  These  people  brought  with  them  their  white 
cattle.  One  hundred  years  later,  another  tribe  called  the  Batavians, 
came  to  this  same  territory  along  the  Rhine  with  their  herds  of  black 
cattle.  The  combination  of  these  two  herds  produced  the  black  and 
white  breeds  of  Europe.  j 

These  cattle  were  introduced  into  America  about  the  year  1625  by  the 
early  Dutch  settlers.  Further  importations  were  made  in  1810.  These 
early  animals  were  probably  bred  to  native  cattle,  with  the  result  that 
the  purity  of  the  bleed  was  lost.  The  first  cow  to  which  we  can  directly 
trace  any  of  this  breed  was  imported  to  the  United  States  in  1852. 

The  first  cattle  of  this  breed  were  given  the  name  Holstein  by  the 
importer.  The  name  Friesian  was  given  the  breed  by  another  and  later 
importer,  who  called  his  cattle  Dutch  Friesians.  The  name  was  later 
changed  to  Holstein  Friesians. 

The  true  type  of  this  breed  is  the  result  of  centuries  of  selection  and 
environment.  The  breed  is  noted  for  marvelous  milk  production,  power- 
ful digestion,  and  perfect  assimilation  of  food. 

Instances  have  been  recorded  where  a  cow  of  this  breed  produced  in 
one  year  as  much  as  30,000  pounds  of  milk,  and  there  are  many  records 
over  20,000  pounds.  However,  their  milk  is  not  as  rich  in  butter  fat  as 
that  of  the  Jersey  or  Guernsey.  The  large  size  of  the  Holstein  is  the  first 
thing  to  impress  the  casual  observer.  Next  to  the  Jersey,  the  Holsteins 
are  second  in  point  of  numbers  in  the  United  States. 

13 


Champion  Guernsey  Cow,  National  Dairy  Show,  1911 


A  FEW  FACTS  ABOUT  GUERNSEYS 

Guernseys,  like  Jerseys,  are  a  Channel  Island  breed,  having  orig- 
inated on  the  Island  of  Guernsey  in  the  English  Channel.  These  breeds 
doubtless  had  a  common  origin,  although  they  are  at  present  bred  and 
developed  independently.  Both  have  been  developed  as  dairy  cattle,  and 
they  resemble  each  other  in  general  appearance  and  in  characteristics. 
Guernsey  cattle  are  somewhat  larger  than  Jerseys,  also  coarser  in  bone 
and  carry  more  flesh.  They  are  noted  for  the  rich,  yellow  color  of  their 
milk  and  cream.  Next  to  the  Jersey,  the  Guernsey  produces  the  richest 
milk.  In  quantity,  the  Guernsey  yield  often  excels  that  of  the  Jersey. 

In  America  in  the  early  days,  the  Jerseys  and  Guernseys  were  classed 
together  under  the  general  name  of  Alderney,  but  later  they  were  recog- 
nized as  separate  breeds. 

The  Guernseys  are  prolific  milkers,  and  their  gentle  disposition,  much 
like  that  of  the  Jersey,  makes  the  breed  a  favorite.  The  Guernsey  is  an 
ideal  family  cow,  as  it  is  a  light  feeder,  but  rich  in  milk  production.  Five 
thousand  pounds  of  milk  and  over  in  a  year  is  not  at  all  an  unusual  per- 
formance for  a  Guernsey. 

The  Guernsey  has  a  finely  shaped  head,  a  long,  slender  neck,  large 
and  deep  body  conformation,  and  thin,  shapely  flanks.  The  color  is 
light  yellow,  reddish,  or  fawn,  with  white  spots  on  the  legs  and  body. 

The  Guernseys  have  become  very  popular  in  America,  because  they 
have  strong  constitutions,  are  good  feeders,  and  produce  a  large  flow  of 
rich  milk.  One  of  the  most  famous  cows  of  this  breed  is  Yeksa  Sunbeam, 
who  produced  in  one  year  14,920.8  pounds  of  milk,  containing  857.15 
pounds  of  butter.  The  average  test  of  this  milk  was  5.74 

15 


Champion  Ayrshire  Cow,  National  Dairy  Show,  1911 

THE  AYRSHIRE  CATTLE 

This  well-known  breed  was  originated  in  the  mountainous  county  of 
Ayrshire,  located  in  southwestern  Scotland,  and  brought  to  its  present 
standard  by  careful  breeding  in  this  country. 

The  Ayrshires  first  appeared  in  this  country  in  the  State  of  Xew 
York  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  their  numbers 
were  considerably  increased  about  the  middle  of  the  century. 

The  Ayrshire  breed  is  famous  for  its  economy  in  feeding  and  the 
ease  with  which  it  withstands  conditions  that  would  be  a  serious 
hindrance  to  other  breeds  in  the  production  of  milk. 

The  Ayrshire  is  of  a  nervous  disposition  and  is  apt  to  be  quarrel- 
some at  times.  The  markings  of  the  Ayrshire  are  red  and  white  in 
spots,  not  mixed,  with  a  tendency  at  present  toward  more  white.  In 
size  the  Ayrshire  is  about  the  size  of  the  Dutch  Belted  type. 

The  Ayrshire  cow  weighs  from  900  to  1,100  pounds.  Records  show 
that  individual  cows  have  produced  as  high  as  10,000  and  12,000  pounds  of 
milk  a  year.  Butter  fat  in  the  milk  averages  about  4  per  cent.  Because 
of  its  composition,  Ayrshire  milk  is  especially  well  adapted  for  shipment 
to  city  markets. 

This  breed  has  become  very  popular  in  America  within  the  last  few 
years,  and  in  this  respect  they  are  a  close  rival  of  the  Jerseys,  Guernseys 
and  Holsteins.  One  of  the  greatest  triumphs  of  this  breed  came  when 
Oldhall  Lady  Smith  4th  won  the  Grand  Championship  over  all  breeds  at 
the  1911  National  Dairy  Show. 

The  owners  of  Ayrshire  cattle  in  America  have  as  a  rule  been  practical 
dairymen  who  have  not  forced  their  cows  in  attempts  to  make  phenomenal 
records.  The  breed  as  a  whole,  therefore,  is  in  a  much  more  normal  con- 
dition than  some  of  the  other  prominent  dairy  breeds. 

17 


A  representative  Brown  Swiss  Cow 


THE  BROWN  SWISS  CATTLE 

Switzerland  has  long  been  famous  as  a  dairy  country.  The  Brown 
Swiss  cattle  of  that  country,  grazed  on  Alpine  grass,  are  remarkably 
strong  and  healthy.  Their  native  home  is  the  canton  of  Schwyz,  which 
is  the  most  noted  canton  for  the  dairy  industry. 

The  first  importation  of  these  cattle  into  America  was  made  by  Henry 
M.  Clarke,  of  Belmont,  Mass.,  in  1869.  Many  other  importations  fol- 
lowed and  there  are  somewhat  over  5,000  of  these  cattle  in  the  New 
England  and  the  Middle  and  Western  States. 

The  color  of  these  cattle  is  usually  described  as  being  brown.  The 
color,  however,  runs  through  many  shades  and  is  often  a  mouse  color  or 
brownish  dun.  The  darkest  color  is  on  the  head,  neck,  and  legs.  The 
nose,  tongue,  hoofs,  and  switch  are  black.  The  average  weight  of  the 
cows  is  1,300  or  1,400  pounds,  and  the  bulls  weigh  from  1,500  to  2,500 
pounds.  « 

There  are  numerous  instances  where  cows  of  this  breed  have  produced 
as  high  as  10,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year  and  in  some  cases  a  produc- 
tion of  16,000  pounds  has  been  reached.  The  milk  from  these  cows  has 
an  average  test  of  about  4  per  cent  butter  fat. 

Long  life  is  one  of  the  pronounced  characteristics  of  this  breed.  The 
cows  are  in  their  prime  when  eleven  and  twelve  years  old  and  frequently 
continue  to  breed  up  to  sixteen  or  eighteen  years  of  age.  They  are 
strong  and  of  a  somewhat  stolid  disposition.  While  it  is  true  that  the 
cows  of  this  breed  do  not  conform  as  closely  as  do  those  of  some  other 
breeds  to  the  recognized  dairy  type,  they  prove  persistent  and  profitable 
producers.  In  conformation  they  have  a  tendency  to  be  round,  plump 
and  compact. 

19 


20 


An  excellent  type  of  Dutch  Belted  Cow 

THE  DUTCH  BELTED  CATTLE 

The  history  of  Dutch  Belted  cattle  indicates  that  these  cattle  first 
began  to  flourish  in  considerable  numbers  in  1750.  This  breed  is  dis- 
tinguished by  a  white  belt  around  the  body,  the  balance  of  the  body  being 
black.  In  Holland  the  breed  is  known  as  Lakenvelders,  which  literally 
means  a  field  of  white,  or  in  this  case,  a  white  body  with  black  ends. 

Regarding  the  history  of  this  breed  in  America.  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of 
American  Agriculture  says  :  ' '  Dutch  Belted  cattle  were  first  imported  to 
America  in  1838.  D.  H.  Haight  was  the  largest  importer.  He  made  his 
first  importation  in  1838,  and  a  later  one  in  1848.  His  herd  became 
scattered  over  Orange  County,  N.  Y.,  until  one  will  find  a  great  many 
belted  cows  in  every  township  in  that  county  today.  Hon.  Robert  W. 
Coleman  also  imported  a  large  herd  to  place  on  his  estate  at  Cornwall, 
Pa.  The  Dutch  Belted  cattle  in  America  today  are  entirely  descended 
from  these  herds.  In  1840,  P.  T.  Barnum  imported  a  number  of  Dutch 
Belted  cattle  for  show  purposes,  but  shortly  placed  them  on  his  farm  in 
Orange  County,  N.  Y.  One  heifer  was  imported  in  1906  by  Dr.  H.  W. 
Lane,  of  New  York  City,  for  his  farm  in  New  Jersey,  but  previous  to  that 
time  none  were  brought  over  for  more  than  fifty  years.  This  was  due 
chiefly  to  the  very  great  difficulty  in  securing  them  and  to  the  restrictions 
against  importing  them.  A  number  have  been  exported  from  this  country 
to  Canada  and  Mexico,  and  a  few  to  Cuba.  In  1893,  H.  B.  Richards, 
Secretary  of  the  Dutch  Belted  Cattle  Association,  sold  his  World's  Fair 
herd,  numbering  sixteen,  and  nine  others  to  a  son-in-law  of  President 
Diaz,  and  shipped  them  to  Mexico.  Later,  Mr.  Richards  sold  twenty  to 
Sir  William  Van  Home,  of  Canada.  Other  exportations  have  been  made. 
There  are  about  fifteen  hundred  head  in  America  at  the  present  time." 

The  cows  weigh  on  an  average  of  1,000  to  1,200  pounds.  The  Dutch 
Belted  is  very  similar  to  the  Holstein  in  the  amount  and  quality  of  the 
milk  produced. 

21 


PROFITABLE  FEEDING 

Next  ta-. the  feeding  of  "scrub"  cows,  the  "scrub"  feeding  of  good 
cows  is  responsible  for  the  smajl  profits  many  dairymen  realize.  No 
cow  can  be  expected  to  produce  the  large  flow  of  milk  that  she  must 
produce  to  be  profitable,  unless  she  receives  a  sufficient  quantity  of  feed 
of  the  right  quality.  To  profitably  feed  dairy  cows  the  feeder  must  have 
a  knowledge  df  what  the  cow  requires  and  of  what  kind  of  feed  will  best 
meet  these  requirements.  There  are  no  short  cuts  to  this  knowledge.  It 
is  secured  only  by  'spending  time  and  energy  in  the  study  of  the  subject. 
Efforts  in  this  directibn  are,  however,  well  worth  while.  Every  farmer 
who  has  conscientiously  endeavored  to  learn  what  feed  his  cows  require 
and  has  then  supplied  it,  has  been  amply  paid  for  his  trouble  in  the 
increased  profits  secured. 

Much  has  been  said  about  feeding  balanced  rations,  but  in  spite  of 
this  the  balanced  ration  is  very  much  misunderstood.  Many  farmers 
imagine  that  it  is  something  new-fangled  and  impractical.  As  a  matter 
of  f act,  it  is  simply  feeding  a  cow,  in  as  exact  a  manner  as  is  possible, 
the  feed  she  needs  to  sustain  life  and  manufacture  a  large  quantity  of 
milk.  Chemical  analysis  of  our  common  feeding  stuffs  show  that  they 
contain  all  the  necessary  material  for  body  maintenance  and  milk 
production,  but  in  practically  no  instances  are  these  materials  contained 
in  any  one  kind  of  feed  in  the  right  proportion  for  the  most  satisfactory 
results.  Feeding  a  balanced  ration,  then,  is  simply  feeding  a  ration  in 
which  the  nutrients  contained  are  in  the  right  quantity  and  proportion 
to  secure  maximum  results  at  a  minimum  cost. 

The  three  materials,  or  nutrients,  contained  in  feeding  stuffs  that 
must  be  considered  by  the  feeder  of  dairy  cows  are:  protein,  carbo- 
hydrate and  fat.  To  take  these  up  separately,  we  find: 

First,  protein  is  the  most  expensive  and  difficult  material  to  secure. 
Ordinary  farm-grown  feeds  are,  as  a  rule,  deficient  in  protein.  In  the 

animal   body  this  material  goes  to 
build  up  muscle,  blood  and  connec- 
tive tissue.    In  milk  it  is  represented 
by    casein    and    albumen.      Among 
farm  crops  it  is  found  in  the  largest 
quantities  in  leguminous  plants,  such 
as  alfalfa,  clover,  cow  peas  and  soy 
beans.    Most  dairymen  secure  a  con- 
siderable   part   of  the   protein  they 
feed  through  the  pur- 
chase of  highly  con- 
centrated feeds,  such 
as  linseed  meal,  cot- 
tonseed meal,  gluten 
feed,  bran,  etc.     Pro- 
tein should  compose 
about  one-sixth  of  the 
nutrients  in  the  ration 
of   the   average    cow 
when  in  milk. 


Second,  carbohydrate  is  that  part  of  the  feed  which  goes  to  produce 
bodily  heat,  energy  and  fat.  In  milk,  it  is  found  in  the  form  of  sugar  and 
fat.  The  problem  of  securing  sufficient  carbohydrate  is  never  a  serious 
one,  as  it  is  the  cheapest  and  most  abundant  and  is  found  in  large  quan- 
tities in  most  tarm  crops. 

Third,  the  fat  or  oil  is  a  nutrient  that  for  all  practical  purposes  should 
be  considered  the  same  as  carbohydrate.  It  tills  the  same  purpose  as 
carbohydrate  and  contains  the  same  elements,  but  in  a  more  concentrated 
form.  Experiments  show  that  one  pound  of  fat  is  equal  to  2.25  pounds 
of  carbohydrate.  In  the  calculation  of  rations,  carbohydrate  and  fat  are 
considered  together.  That  is,  the  fat  is  multiplied  by  2.25  and  then 
added  to  the  carbohydrate. 

In  making  up  rations  for  dairy  cows,  those  feeds  which  are  grown  on 
the  farm  should  be  used  as  extensively  as  possible.  Feeds  which  are 
grown  on  the  farm  are  much  cheaper  than  those  which  must  be  purchased, 
and  practically  the  only  feeds  that  the  average  farmer  needs  to  buy  are 
those  rich  in  protein. 

Corn  silage  should  always  be  a  part  of  the  dairy  cow's  ration,  with 
the  exception  of  the  time  when  the  cow  is  on  rich  pasture.  Corn  silage, 
however,  is  not  a  balanced  ration.  Some  grain  and  hay  should  be  fed 
with  it.  From  thirty  to  forty  pounds  of  silage  a  day,  fed  in  two  feeds, 
will  be  sufficient  for  a  cow  unless  she  is  a  very  large  animal,  in  which 
case  the  quantity  can  be  slightly  increased. 

One  of  the  greatest  mistakes  that  many  dairymen  make  is  that  of  feed- 
ing timothy  hay  to  milk  cows.  Timothy  hay  has  its  uses,  but  much 
better  feeds  can  be  found  for  milk-producing  cows.  Alfalfa,  clover, 
cowpea  hay,  vetch  hay,  soybean  hay,  and  velvet  bean  hay  are  crops,  one 
or  more  of  which  are  adapted  to  most  localities,  which  furnish  the  most 
desirable  dry  roughage  for  dairy  cows. 

Local  prices,  to  some  extent,  must  be  taken  into  consideration  when 
selecting  the  concentrated  or  grain 
portion  of  the  ration.  The  price  of 
the  feeds  varies  in  different  locali- 
ties. Hence,  in  buying  concentrates 
two  things  should  be  considered: 
First,  and  above  all  else,  the  nutri- 
tive value  of  the  feed.  Second, 
prices  on  the  local  market. 

On  the  following  page  the  method 
of  formulating  a  balanced  ration  is 
explained  and  a  feeding  standard 
for  dairy  cows  given.  It  should  be 
remembered,  however,  that  no  two 
cows  are  exactly  alike ;  and  there- 
fore the  kind  and  quantity  of  feed 
will  vary  with  individuals.  The 
feeder,  then,  must  not  only  be  fa- 
miliar with  the  theoretical  require- 
ments, but  must  make  a  study  of  the  ; 
individual  requirements  of  each  cow 
in  his  herd. 


AMOUNT  OF  FEED  REQUIRED  BY  DAIRY  COWS 

The  following  feeding  standards  are  the  results  of  investigations,  by 
Haecker,  into  the  requirements  of  dairy  cows  and  will  serve  as  a  very 
good  guide  to  the  dairyman  in  mixing  rations  for  his  cows  that  will 
meet  the  requirements  of  bodily  maintenance  and  maximum  milk 
yield. 

For  every  100  pounds  of  live  weight  there  is  required  a  mainte- 
nance allowance  of  .07  of  a  pound  of  protein,  0.7  of  a  pound  of  carbo- 
hydrate, and  .01  of  a  pound  of  fat. 

The  following  is  Haecker's  feeding  standard  for  dairy  cows.  To 
the  quantity  of  nutrients  given  below  should  be  added  the  allowance 
for  maintenance  given  above.  The  1,000-pound  cow  is  taken  as  a  basis 
in  the  following  table: 


Daily  Allowance  of 
Digestible  Nutrients 

Crude 
Protein 
Lbs. 

Carbo- 
hydrate 
Lbs. 

Fat. 
Lbs. 

For  each  pound  of  3.0  pier  ceut  milk  

0.040 
0.042 
0.047 
0.049 
0.051 
0.054 
0.057 
0.061 
0.063 

0.19 
0.21 
0.23 
0.26 
0.27 
0.29 
0.31 
0.33 
0.35 

0.015 
0.016 
0.018 
0.020 
0.021 
0.022 
0.024 
0.025 
0.027 

For  each  pound  of  3.5  per  cent  milk 

For  each  pound  of  4.0  per  cent  milk 

For  each  pound  of  4.5  per  cent  milk  

For  each  pound  of  5.0  per  cent  milk         

For  each  pound  of  5.5  per  cent  milk 

For  each  pound  of  6.0  per  cent  milk 

For  each  pound  of  6.5  per  cent  milk 

For  each  pound  of  7.0  per  cent  milk 

To  illustrate  how  this  table  is  used,  let  us  assume  that  we  have  a  cow 
weighing  1,200  pounds  and  producing  thirty-five  pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk 
a  day.  Multiplying  the  maintenance  allowance  for  100  pounds  of  live 
weight  by  12  the  results  show  that  a  1,200- pound  cow  requires  per  day 
for  maintenance  .84  of  a  pound  of  crude  protein,  8.4  pounds  of  car- 
bohydrate, and  .12  of  a  pound  of  fat.  For  the  production  of  thirty-five 
pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk  she  requires  thirty-five  times  the  allowance  given 
in  the  table  for  the  production  of  one  pound  of  4  per  cent  milk.  We  find 
that  to  produce  this  milk  she  must  receive  above  the  maintenance  allow- 
ance 1.545  pounds  of  protein,  8.05  pounds  of  carbohydrates  and  .63  of  a 
pound  of  fat.  Tabulating  these  results  and  adding  the  maintenance  and 
producing  allowance,  we  have  the  following  results: 


Crude 
Protein 
Lbs. 

Carbo- 
hydrate 
Lbs. 

Fat 
Lbs. 

For  Maintenance 

.84 

8.4 

.12 

For  producing  35  pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk_ 

1.545 

8.05 

.63 

Total  nutrients  required  per  day 

2.385 

16.45 

.75 

In  formulating  rations  for  dairy  cows  the  roughage  portion  o; 
the  ration  should  be  taken  as  a  basis  and  its  deficiencies  overcome  by 
the  addition  of  concentrates.  Take,  for  instance,  the  1, 200-pound 
co\v  producing  thirty-five  pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk  a  day.  This  cow 
should  have  about  forty-five  pounds  of  corn  silage  and  ten  pounds 
of  hay,  and  for  the  sake  of  illustrating  the  formulation  of  a  ration,  we 
will  use  clover  hay.  By  referring  to  the  table  on  page  27  we  find  that 
the  average  nutrients  contained  in  100  pounds  of  corn  silage  are: 
Protein,  1.4  pounds;  carbohydrates,  14.2  pounds,  and  fat,  .7  of  a  pound 
The  nutrients  in  forty-five  pounds  of  silage  are  found  as  follows: 

Protein,  1.4-5-100  x45=.631bs.  of  protein  in 45  Ibs.  of  silage. 
Carbohydrates,  14.2-^-100x45=7.57  Ibs.  of   carbohydrates  in 

45  Ibs.  of  silage. 

Fat,  .7 -7-100x45=. 311  Ibs  of  fat  in  45  Ibs.  of  silage. 
The  table  also   shows  that  100  pounds  of   clover  hay  contains    7.1 
pound  of  protein,  37.8  pounds  of  carbohydrate  and  1.8  pounds  of  fat. 
The  amount  of  these  nutrients  in  ten  pounds  of  clover  (red)  hay  are, 
therefore : 

Protein,  7.1-4-100  x  10=.71  Ibs.  of  protein  in  10  Ibs.  of  clover  hay. 
Carbohydrates,  37.8-5-100x10=3.78  Ibs.  of  carbohydrates  in 

10  Ibs.  of  clover  hay. 

Fat,  1.8-5-100x10=.  18  Ibs.  of  fat  in  10  Ibs.  of  clover  hay. 
Adding  the  nutrients  in  forty-five  pounds  of  silage  and  in  ten  pounds 
of  clover  hay  and  subtracting  their  sum  from  the  total  nutrients  required 
by  a  1,800- pound  cow  producing  thirty-five  pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk, 
we  find  the  nutrients  which  must  be  supplied  by  the  concentrated  por- 
tion of  the  ration. 


Crude 
Protein 
Lbs. 

Carbo- 
hydrate 
Lbs. 

Fat 
Lbs. 

Total  nutrients  required  per  day  by  a 
1,200-lb.  cow  .  .  .  . 

2.385 

16.45 

.75 

Total  nutrients  supplied  by  45  pounds  of 
silage  and  10  pounds  of  clover  hay  

1.34 

11.35 

.495 

Pounds  of  nutrients  which  must  be  supplied 
by  the  concentrated  portion  of  the  ration 

1.045 

5.10 

.255 

In  feeding  the  concentrated  portion  of  the  ration,  it  will  be  found 
very  convenient  and  practical  to  make  up  several  hundred  pounds  of 
a  mixture  of  several  concentrates  and  then  feed  such  quantities  of 
this  mixture  as  are  necessary  to  make  up  the  deficiency  of  the  rough- 
age portion  of  the  ration.  For  the  purpose  of  illustration,  we  will 
assume  that  the  concentrates  at  hand  for  feeding  to  the  above  mentioned 
co\v  are :  Corn  meal,  wheat  bran  and  gluten  meal. 

For  a  trial  ration  we  will  take  four  pounds  of  corn  meal,  four  pounds 
of  wheat  bran  and  two  pounds  of  gluten  meal.  Using  the  same  process 
as  was  used  in  finding  the  nutrients  contained  in  the  roughage  portion  of 
the  ration,  we  find : 


Crude 

Carbo- 

Fat 

Protein 

hydrate 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

4  pounds  of  corn  meal  .  . 

.244 

2.572 

.14 

4  pounds  of  wheat  bran 

.476 

1.68 

.1 

2  pounds  of  gluten  meal  ...... 

.594 

.85 

.122 

Total.  

1.814 

5.102 

.862 

Adding  to  this  the  nutrients  contained  in  forty-five  pounds  of  silage 
and  ten  pounds  of  hay,  we  have  2.654  pounds  of  protein,  16.452  pounds 
of  carbohydrates  and  .857  of  a  pound  of  fat. 

Comparing  these  results  with  the  standard,  it  will  be  noted  that  there 
is  a  slight  excess  of  protein  and  of  fat.  This  variation  from  the  theo- 
retical standard  is,  however,  permissible.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
if  commercial  feeding  stuffs  fall  below  standard,  the  probability  is  that 
the  deficiency  will  be  in  protein.  It  is  also  practically  impossible  to 
formulate  a  ration  that  will  exactly  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
standard,  but  every  effort  should  be  made  to  adhere  as  closely  as  possible 
to  the  standard. 

Our  ration,  then,  for  a  1,200-pound  cow,  giving  thirty-five  pounds  of 
4  per  cent  milk,  is:  forty-five  pounds  corn  silage,  ten  pounds  clover  hay, 
four  pounds  corn  meal,  four  pounds  wheat  bran  and  two  pounds  gluten 
meal. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  feed  that  can  be  used  in  formulat- 
ing a  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  and  it  should  be  understood  that  the  above 
feeds  are  used  simply  as  an  illustration. 

The  table  on  the  opposite  page  gives  the  amount  of  nutrients  contained 
in  a  number  of  the  more  common  feeding  stuffs.  These  analyses  are 
taken  from  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding:" 


Jacoba  Irene,  a  Jersey  cow  who  produced  in  two  years  (December  11,  1906,  to 

January  24,  1909— dry  45  days)  31,508.9  pounds  of  milk, 

containing  1,745.06  pounds  of  butter  fat 


KIND  OF  FEED 

Dry  matter 
in 
100  Ibs. 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrate 

Fat 

ROUGHAGE 
Corn  fodder  with  ears  on 

57.8 
59.5 
26.4 
84.7 
86.0 
84.7 
88.2 
89.5 
91.9 
88.7 
92.4 
90.0 
87.1 

89.4 
88.7 
85.0 
84.9 
90.8 
90.5 
88.8 
88.1 
88.4 
91.3 
89.2 
89.6 
88.0 
91.2 
85.4 
88.8 
90.1 
90.2 
91.0 
89.7 
93.0 
88.9 
91.3 
92.4 
91.6 
79.2 
90.9 

2.5 
1.4 
1.4 
4.2 
4.4 
7.1 
10.6 
9.2 
10.5 
11.9 
6.7 
9.6 
5.8 

7.8 
8.0 
6.1 
4.4 
21.3 
29.7 
13.0 
11.9 
9.6 
9.5 
8.4 
8.8 
10.1 
13.1 
16.8 
29.1 
5.2 
30.2 
31.5 
12.5 
37.6 
0.3 
20.0 
32.8 
4.1 
4.7 
9.8 

34.6 
31.2 
14.2 
42.0 
40.2 
37.8 
40.9 
39.3 
40.5 
40.7 
42.2 
52.5 
41.8 

,     66.8 
68.2 
64.3 
60.0 
62.8 
42.5 
45.7 
42.0 
48.2 
69.4 
65.3 
49.2 
52.5 
57.7 
54.9 
23.3 
44.3 
32.0 
35.7 
30.0 
21.4 
33.2 
32.2 
39.7 
64.9 
54.1 
40.8 

1.2 
0.7 
0.7 
1.3 
0.7 
1.8 
1.2 
1.3 
0.9 
1.6 
3.0 
1.4 
1.3 

4.3 
4.3 
3.5 
2.9 
2.9 
6.1 
4.5 
2.5 
1.9 
1.2 
1.6 
4.3 
8.7 
6.5 
1.1 
14.6 
1.4 
6.9 
2.4 
17.3 
9.6 
1.7 
6.0 
11.6 

Corn  fodder,  ears  removed..  

Corn  silage 

Hay  from  mixed  grasses    . 

Kentucky  blue  grass 

Red  clover  ._.  

Soybean  hay__ 

Cowpea  hay       _._  

Alfalfa 

Hairy  vetch 

Peanut  vine 

Velvet  bean 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover  

CONCENTRATES 
Dent  corn  

Flint  corn  _ 

Corn  meal 

Corn  and  cob  meal 

Gluten  feed..  

Gluten  meal 

Standard  wheat  middlings  (shorts).  _. 
Wheat  bran 

Wheat  screenings 

Rye  

Barley  .     _ 

Oats 

Ground  oats    .   

Oat  middlings  .  . 

Cowpea  

Soybean 

Kafir  corn  

Linseed  meal  (old  process) 

Linseed  meal  (new  process) 

Cotton  seed 

Cotton  seed  meal  

Cotton  seed  hulls  

Dried  brewers'  grains 

Dried  distillers'  grains. 

Dried  beet  pulp. 

Sugar  beet  molasses 

Alfalmo... 

0.9 

27 


DEVELOPING  THE  DAIRY  HEIFER 

More  and  more,  thoughtful  dairymen  are  coming  to  realize  that  in 
order  to  have  profitable  herds  they  must  raise  and  develop  their  r  /n 
cows.  Men  Avho  have  good  cows  are  not  anxious  to  part  with  them,  and 
the  dairyman  who  depends  upon  the  purchaso  of  mature  cows  to  keep  up 
his  herd  is  forced  to  pay  someone  a  handsome  profit  for  raising  them,  or 
else  be  content  with  the  culls  of  other  herds.  Even  when  he  pays  the 
high  price  he  is  not  certain  that  the  cows  he  buys  will  prove  a  profitable 
investment. 

It  will  be  found  much  cheaper  and  more  certain  for  the  average  dairy- 
man to  raise  his  own  cows  than  to  pay  someone  a  profit  for  raising  them 
for  him.  It  is  a  fact  that  most  of  the  best-producing  herds  in  the  coun- 
try have  been  bred  and  raised  by  the  men  who  own  them. 

The  heifer  calves  raised  should  be  those  from  the  best  cows,  and  at 
least  one-sixth  as  many  heifers  should  be  raised  as  there  are  cows  in  the 
herd.  It  is  estimated  that  on  an  average,  one-sixth  of  the  cows  in  a  herd 
each  year  reach  an  age  when  it  is  no  longer  profitable  to  keep  them. 
Therefore,  by  raising  one-sixth  as  many  heifer  calves  as  there  are  cows 
in  the  herd,  those  cows  which  must  be  disposed  of  from  year  to  year  will 
be  replaced. 

The  heifer  calf  which  is  to  be  raised  for  a  future  producer  in  the  herd 
should,  of  course,  be  the  offspring  of  animals  of  proved  milk-producing 
power.  But  that  will  not  necessarily  mean  that  she  will  develop  into  a 
good  cow.  The  care  and  feed  the  calf  receives  from  birth  to  maturity  is 
of  utmost  importance.  The  best  heifer  calf  in  the  world  can  easily  be 
ruined  as  far  as  future  milk-production  is  concerned,  by  improper  feed- 
ing and  treatment.  There  are  a  few  simple  rules,  which,  if  followed  and 


I 


It  pays  to  give  calves  good  feed  and  care 

•28 


supplemented  by  a  litttle  judgment  and  experience,  will  produce  results 
well  worth  the  effort. 

During  the  first  three  or  four  days  the  calf  may  be  permitted  to  run 
with  the  cow,  or  it  may  be  taken  away  after  it  is  a  few  hours  old.  Both 
methods  are  used  successfully.  For  at  least  two.  and  preferably  three, 
weeks,  the  calf  should  be  fed  its  mother's  milk  out  of  a  clean  pail  three 
or  four  times  a  day.  The  number  of  feedings  will  depend  upon  the 
strength  of  the  calf,  and  the  amount  will  also  have  to  be  determined  in  a 
like  manner.  An  average  calf,  however,  should  receive  four  to  six 
pounds  of  its  mother's  milk  at  a  feeding  for  the  first  two  or  three  weeks. 
The  change  from  whole  milk  to  skim  milk  should  be  gradual,  and  by  the 
time  the  calf  is  on  a  skim-milk  diet  the  number  of  feedings  should  be 
cut  down  to  two  a  day. 

The  amount  of  skim  milk  a  calf  will  consume  is  not  an  indication  of 
the  amount  to  feed.  A  calf  will  drink  more  skim  milk  than  is  good  for 
it.  Feed  so  that  the  calf  will  look  for  more  when  the  pail  is  empty,  but 
don't  give  more.  By  the  time  the  calf  is  three  months  old  it  should  be 
receiving  about  twenty  pounds  of  skim  milk  a  day,  the  increase  to  this 
amount  being  gradual.  Don't  try  to  force  growth  by  heavy  feeding  or 
the  result  will  be  a  sickly,  stunted  calf. 

An  average  calf  should,  however,  receive  about  twelve  pounds  of 
skim  milk  a  day  until  it  is  six  weeks  old.  This  should  be  gradually 
increased  so  that  the  calf  is  drinking  at  least  twenty  pounds  a  day  by  the 
time  it  is  three  months  old.  By  this  time  the  calf  will  be  eating  enough 
food  other  than  skim  milk  so  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  increase  the 
milk  ration  over  twenty  pounds  per  day. 

A  great  deal  of  the  success  of  calf-feeding  depends  upon  the  judg- 
ment of  the  person  who  is  doing  the  feeding.  This  judgment  is  not  an 
accidental  acquisition,  but  instead  is  the  result  of  careful  study. 

One  of  the  most  vital  considerations  in  feeding  the  calf  is  to  have  the 
milk — whether  whole  or  skim  milk  —  warm  and  sweet,  and  just  as  fresh 
from  the  cow  as  is  possible.  It  is  here  that  the  hand  separator  is 
valuable.  While  separator  skim  milk  does  not  contain  as  much  fat  as 
gravity  skim  milk,  it  is  clean,  warm  and  wholesome — which  often  is 
not  the  case  with  gravity  skim  milk:  The  pails  from  which  the  milk  is 
fed  should  be  frequently  cleaned  and  scalded,  so  that  the  milk  which  the 
calf  drinks  will  not  be  contaminated.  If  clean,  warm  skim  milk  is 
regularly  fed  from  pails  that  are  kept  in  a  sanitary  condition,  and  the 
amount  of  milk  and  time  of  feeding  are  properly  regulated,  there  is 
practically  no  danger  of  scours. 

A  calf  will  not  do  well  on  skim  milk  alone,  and  consequently  it 
should  be  taught  to  eat  a  little  grain  as  soon  as  possible.  Many  feeders 
add  a  little  oil  meal  to  the  skim  milk  and  let  the  calf  lick  it  out  of  the 
bottom  of  the  pail,  but  as  the  calf  must  learn  sooner  or  later  to  eat 
grain  without  milk,  there  is  nothing  gained  by  postponing  teaching  the 
calf  to  eat  in  the  proper  way.  After  the  calf  has  finished  its  milk  do 
not  let  it  out  of  the  stanchion,  but  instead  put  a  little  grain  before  it  and 
it  will  soon  nose  around  and  begin  to  eat.  A  good  way  to  get  the  calf 
interested  in  the  grain  is  to  put  a  handful  in  its  mouth. 

A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  bran  and  ground  oats  forms  an  excellent 


ration  for  the  dairy  calf.  Incidentally,  it  may  be  well  to  mention  the 
fact  that  oats  (unground)  are  one  of  the  best  cures  for  scours.  In  case 
the  calf  is  very  thin,  a  little  corn  meal  can  be  added  to  the  ration. 

Not  only  should  the  dairy  calf  have  a  ration  of  grain,  but  it  should 
also  be  encouraged  to  eat  a  large  amount  of  roughage,  as  this  will  have 
a  tendency  to  develop  a  capacity  for  consuming  a  large  amount  of  food. 
Capacity  is  one  of  the  most  important  characteristics  of  a  good  cow  and 
every  effort  should  be  made  to  develop  it. 

If  it  is  possible  give  the  calf  an  abundance  of  alfalfa  hay,  as  it  is  one 
of  the  best  growth-producing  feeds  in  the  world,  and  besides  it  has  a 
very  good  effect  on  the  digestive  system  of  the  calf.  When  alfalfa  is  fed 
there  is  practically  no  need  of  feeding  any  grain  except  in  very  small 
quantities. 

The  heifer  should  not  be  bred  under  any  circumstances  until  she  is  at 
least  eighteen  months  old,  and  no  harm  will  result  from  letting  her  go  a 
few  months  longer.  Too  early  breeding  has  a  strong  tendency  to  stunt 
the  growth  and  vigor  of  the  animal  and  seriously  reduce  the  profitable- 
ness to  which  she  may  be  developed.  After  the  first  calf,  milk  the  young 
cow  three  times  a  day,  as  frequent  milking  will  develop  the  udder  and 
increase  the  flow  of  milk.  There  is  an  old  saying  that  "the  more  you 
milk,  the  more  you  may." 

TREATMENT  OF  SCOURS  IN  CALVES 

In  a  circular  issued  by  the  Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture,  the 
following  method  is  given  for  the  treatment  of  scours  in  calves: 

"As  soon  as  symptoms  appear,  two  to  four  tablespoonfuls  of  castor 
oil  are  mixed  with  one-half  pint  of  milk  and  given  to  the  calf.  This  is 
followed  in  four  to  six  hours  by  one  teaspoonful  of  a  mixture  of  one  part 
salol  and  two  parts  sub-nitrate  of  bismuth.  It  can  also  be  given  with 
one-half  pint  of  new  milk  or  the  powder  placed  on  the  tongue  and 
washed  down  by  a  small  amount  of  milk. 

"The  salol  and  sub-nitrate  of  bismuth  can  be  secured  from  any  drug- 
gist mixed  in  the  proper  proportions  at  the  time  of  purchase  and  thus 
have  the  powder  readily  available  for  use  at  any  time.  As  an  additional 
precaution  against  contagious  scours,,  it  is  advised  that  the  navel  of  the 
new-born  calf  be  wetted  with  a  1  to  500  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury 
(corrosive  sublimate)." 


Growing  into  money  makers 
30 


VENTILATION 

Every  farmer  realizes  that  moldy,  decayed  feed  is  injurious  to  the 

health  and  productivity  of  his  cows.     But  how  many  realize  the  serious 

effects  of  forcing  the  cows  to  breathe  exhausted,  impure  air?     Clean, 

pure  air  contains  oxygen,  which  is  just  as  necessary  to  the  cow  as  hay, 

grain  or  water.  If  the  air  breathed  is  con- 
taminated or  lacking  in  oxygen,  the  results 
will  be  just  as  injurious  as  feeding  moldy, 
decayed  feed. 

The  lungs  are  the  means  by  which  oxy- 
gen is  supplied  to  the  blood  from  the  air, 
and  they  are  also  the  means  by  which 
carbon  dioxide  is  thrown  off.  The  oxygen 
of  the  air  when  breathed  into  the  lungs  is 
absorbed  by  blood  and  is  necessary  to 
health  and  life.  Carbon  dioxide,  which 
the  expelled  breath  carries  out  of  the 
lungs,  is  a  poison. 

Therefore,  if  the  air  which  has-  once 
been  breathed,  depleted  of  oxygen  and 
loaded  with 
carbon  diox- 
ide, is  not  re- 
moved from 
the  barn  the 
cows  will 
breathe,  not 
oxygen,  but 
instead,  pois- 
onous carbon  dioxide.  The  effect  of  this  on 

the   cows  will    be   weakened   constitutions, 

disease,  and  a  reduced  flow  of   milk.      To 

their  owner  it  will  mean  smaller  profits. 
The  object,  then,  of  ventilation  is  to  bring 

fresh  air  into  the  barn  and  remove  from  the 

barn  the  air   that   has   been    breathed  and 

which  contains  the  poisonous  carbon  dioxide. 

The  system  of  ventilation  used  should  be  one 

that  accomplishes  these  results  without  mak- 

ing  the  barn  cold  or  causing  cold  draughts. 
There  is  probably  plenty  of  fresh  air  in  a 

barn  that  has  broken  or  open  windows,  or 

wide,  open  cracks,  but  such  a  barn  will  be 

so  cold  that  most  of  the  feed  a  cow  receives 

will  be  consumed  in  furnishing  bodily  heat. 

Warmth  is  necessary,  but  it  must  be  warm 

with  pure  air. 

One  of  the  most  satisfactory  systems  of 

ventilation  is  what   is   known  as  the  King 

system.     In   this   system  two   sets  of  flues 

31 


This  illustration  shows  the  outside 
opening  of  air,  intake  flue  (A)  as 
used  in  a  barn  with  board  walls 


Cross    section    of  a  board    wall, 

showing    outside   opening    (A) 

and    inside  opening    (B)   of    air 

intake  flues 


are  used      One  set  admits  the  fresh  air  and  the  other  set  provides  an  out- 
let for  the  foul  air.     This  system  can  be  installed  when  the  barn  is  built 

or  it  may  be  installed  in  barns  which  were  not  so  equipped  when  built. 

^_____ The  illustrations  show  two  styles  of  the 

intake  flues  —  one  for  use  in  barns  where 
the  walls  are  of  wood,  and  the  other  for 
use  in  stone  or  concrete  walled  barns. 

The  flues  should  be  located  at  least 
every  ten  feet  along  both  sides  of  the 
barn.  The  outside  openings  are  located 
near  the  ground  and  the  delivery  openings 
inside  the  barn,  near  the  ceiling.  In  this 
way  the  fresh  air  that  is  brought  into  the 
barn  mingles  with  the  warm  air  near  the 
ceiling  and  a  large  part  of  the  chill  is  taken 
out  of  it  before  it  sinks  to  a  level  with 
the  cows. 

The   openings   of   these    flues    through 
which   the    air    is    admitted    to    the    barn 
should  be  provided  with  shutters,  so  that 
the   amount 
of  air  admit- 
ted   can     be 
regulated. 
This    regula- 
tion  is   very 
necessary  in 
extremely 
cold  weather, 
or    when    a 

cold  wind   is  blowing   directly  against  the 

outside  opening  of  the  flues. 

In  barns  with  wooden  walls,  these  flues 

can  be  made  by  simply  utilizing  the  spaces 

between  the  studding.     The  spaces  that  are 

to  be  used  as  intake  flues,  however,  should 

be   lined   with  heavy   tar   felt   paper.      In 

stone  or  concrete  walled  barns,  the  flues  are 

made  either  of  vitrified  or  of  ordinary  clay 

tile.     The  vitrified  tile  are  much  more  dur- 
able than   the  ordinary  tile,   which  do  not 

very  well  withstand  the  constant   action  of 

the  air. 

The  accompanying  illustration  of  a  cross 

section  of  a  barn  shows  how  the  foul  air 

flues  are  installed.     These  are  usually  two 

in  number.     One  is  located  on  each  side  of 

the  barn  midway  between  the  ends  of  the 

building.     The  flues  extend  from  the  floor,      Cross  section  of  concrete  wall 

showing  outside  (A)  and  inside 
Or  near   to    floor,   to  the  highest   point  of   the         (B)  openings  of  air  intake  flue 


Concrete  wall  showing  air  intake 
flue  outside  opening  (A) 


building.  Bringing  the 
flues  close  to  the  floor 
accomplishes  two  pur- 
poses. First,  it  removes 
the  carbon  dioxide  and 
foul  air  from  the  barn. 
Second,  as  the  cold  air 
is  near  the  floor  and  the 
warm  near  the  ceiling, 
having  the  flues  near  the 
floor  removes  the  cold 
air  instead  of  the  warm. 
In  this  way  the  impure 
air  is  disposed  of  with- 
out materially  reducing 
the  temperature  of  the 
barn. 

These  flues  should  be 
made  with  as  few  turns 
or  bends  as  possible. 
Galvanized  iron  or  wood 
may  be  used  in  making 
them ;  but,  if  wood  is 
used,  the  flues  should  be 
lined  with  tar-felt  paper. 


Cross  section  of  a  Barn,  showing  how  foul  air  flues 
are  installed 


Interior  view  of  C.  S.  Sharp's  Dairy  Barn  at  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  showing  a  system  of  ven- 

tilation  which  is  a  slight  modification  of  that  described  on  the  preceding  pages. 

The  special  construction  of  the  window  frames  here  provides  for  the 

intake  of  fresh  air.     The  principle  is  the  same  as  the 

King  system 


Inside  view  of  C.  S.  Sharp's  Dairy  Barn,  showing  how  an  abundance  of  sunlight 

is  admitted 

SUNLIGHT  THE  GREAT  DESTROYER  OF  GERMS 

Sunlight  is  furnished  free  by  nature  to  preserve  the  health  of  all 
animal  life.  It  is  the  germ  destroyer.  Jt  is  necessary  to  admit  the  sun- 
light freely  to  all  parts  of  the  stable.  For  this  reason  the  ridgepole  of 
the  barn  ought  to  run  north  and  south  to  admit  the  sunlight  on  the  east 
side  of  the  barn  in  the  forenoon  and  on  the  west  side  in  the  afternoon. 

Big  round  or  square  barns  with  the  cows  huddled  together  in  masses 
are  bad,  so  are  basement  barns  in  which  the  sunlight  is  excluded  by  the 
earth  on  one  side  or  possibly  on  two. 

The  barn  ought  to  be  long  and  narrow,  not  more  than  two  rows  of 
cows  being  accommodated.  These  cows  may  face  either  toward  the  center 
alley  or  they  may  face  outward. 

Of  the  two  methods  of  arranging  the  cows,  it  is  difficult  to  decide 
which  ought  to  be  preferred.  Where  the  cows  face  in  there  are  no 
obstructions  to  the  entry  of  the  sunlight  which  may  be  allowed  to  flood 
the  whole  floor  where  the  cow  stands.  If  the  cows'  fasteners  and 
mangers  are  thrust  up  toward  the  windows,  they  stop  the  sunlight  in 
great  part,  and  the  floors  on  which  the  cows  stand  are  kept  in  perpetual 
shade. 

The  floor  should  be  of  cement,  not  troweled  smooth,  but  left  some- 
what rough  so  that  it  may  not  be  slippery  when  wet.  Such  a  floor  is 
somewhat  more  expensive  at  first  cost  than  wooden  floors,  but  its  per- 
manent character  and  the  fact  that  it  may  be  easily  cleaned  'and  kept 
free  from  odors  is  enough  in  itself  to  decide  every  dairyman  in  its  favor. 

34 


THE  VALUE  OF  SILAGE 

It  is  common  knowledge  that  cows  produce  greater  quantities  of  milk 
when  fed  green,  succulent  feed  than  when  kept  on  dry  feed.  June 
is  the  month,  in  most  cases,  when  the  cows  yield  their  largest  flow 
of  milk.  This  is  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  they  have  been  turned 
on  to  fresh,  green  pastures,  whore  they  get  an  abundance  of  succu- 
lent food.  In  cold  winter  months,  when  the  pastures  are  frozen  and 
covered  with  snow,  silage,  properly  preserved,  furnishes  feed  that 
\s  highly  nutritious  and  keeps  the  cow's  digestion  and  appetite  in  the 
best  possible  condition.  Silage  is  recognized  by  successful  dairymen 
as  absolutely  necessary  for  economical  milk  production. 

During  the  summer  months,  when  the  cows  are  on  pasture,  silage 
may  be  dispensed  with.  The  wise  dairyman,  however,  is  now  sup- 
plementing pasturage  with  silage,  and  in  many  cases  substituting 
silage  for  pasturage  entirely.  The  results  are  practically  as  good, 
and  the  cost  much  less.  This  is  an  important  consideration,  as  very 
few  farmers  can  afford,  because  of  the  high  value  of  farm  land,  to 
set  aside  a  large  enough  acreage  of  pasture  to  properly  feed  their 
cows.  It  is  not  necessary  that  they  should,  because  on  a  compara- 
tively small  amount  of  land  they  can  raise  enough  silage  corn  to 
feed  their  herds.  Besides,  pastures  are  uncertain.  A  few  weeks  of 
dry  weather  will  make  them  worthless. 

The  superiority  of  corn  silage  over  dried  corn  fodder  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  silage  is  juicy  and  appetizing;  cattle  relish  it  when  they 
would  reject  ordinary  dried  fodder.  The  Vermont  Experiment  Sta- 
tion made  a  careful  test  of  the  relative  values  of  corn  silage  and  dried 
fodder.  The  results  were : 

24,858  pounds  of  green  fodder  corn,  when  dried  and  fed  with  a 
uniform  allowance  of  hay  and  grain,  produced  7,688  pounds  of  milk. 

24,858  pounds  of  green  fodder  corn,  converted  into  silage  and  fed 
with  the  same  ration  of  hay  and  grain  as  was  fed  with  the  dried  fodder, 
produced  8,525  pounds  of  milk. 

The  following  is  quoted  from  Prof.  W.  A.  Henry's  Feeds  and  Feed- 
ing: "Indian  corn  is  pre-eminently  suited  for  silage.  The  solid,  succu- 
lent stems,  when  cut  into  short  lengths,  pack  closely  and  form  a  solid 


A  good  crop  for  the  silo 
35 


mass,  which  not  only  keeps  well,  but  furnishes  a  product  that  is  greatly 
relished  by  stock  —  especially  cattle.  It  is  reasonable  to  estimate  that 
there  are  over  100,000  silos  now  in  use  in  America.  Probably  95  percent 
of  all  the  forage  stored  in  them  is  from  the  corn  plant,  and  95  per  cent  of 
the  silage  made  is  fed  to  dairy  cows." 

WHEN  AND  HOW  TO  FILL  THE  SILO 

The  quality  of  silage  is  determined  to  a  great  extent  by  the  condition 
of  the  corn  when  cut,  and  the  care  used  in  filling  the  silo.  The  question 
of  the  proper  time  to  cut  corn  and  store  in  the  silo  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed and  studied.  Experience  and  careful  study  of  results  show  that 
the  best  silage  is  made  from  corn  that  is  cut  and  put  into  the  silo  at  the 
time  the  kernel  dents  and  begins  to  harden.  At  this  stage  the  corn  has 
practically  attained  maturity  and  its  full  nutritive  value  is  developed. 
This,  of  course,  will  depend  to  some  degree  on  the  kind  of  corn  which  is 
grown.  Some  varieties  of  corn  dent  easier  than  others,  and  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  let  the  corn  become  too  dry.  Dry  corn  fodder  does  not 
pack  and  exclude  the  air  as  well  as  that  which  contains  a  considerable 
amount  of  moisture.  If  the  use  of  over-dry  fodder  cannot  be  avoided,  its 
disadvantages  can  be  overcome,  in  a  measure,  by  adding  water .  as  the 
corn  is  put  into  the  silo.  The  amount  of  water  to  be  added  is  a  matter 
of  judgment,  and  the  person  applying  it  should  have  had  some  experience 
with  silage.  Too  much  water  will  cause  the  silage  to  develop  an  exces- 
sive amount  of  acidity.  On  the  other  hand,  if  enough  water  is  not  used, 
the  silage  will  not  settle  properly  and  exclude  the  air;  this  will  cause 
moldy  silage. 

A  great  many  farmers  make  the  mistake  of  cutting  their  corn  and 
putting  it  into  the  silo  in  a  very  immature  state.  This  is  often  due  to 
the  fear  that  an  early  frost  will  injure  the  corn  from  a  silage  standpoint. 
Of  course,  being  frosted  does  not  improve  the  quality  of  the  silage,  but 
the  damage  due  to  a  slight  frost  is  not  great.  It  is  much  better  to  take  a 
chance  of  the  corn  being  slightly  frosted  than  to  put  it  into  the  silo  in  a 
green,  immature  condition.  Many  times  the  expected  frost  will  not 
come,  but  the  quality  of  the  silage  will  always  be  reduced  by  using  corn 


Filling  the  silo 


that  is  not  sufficiently  developed.  Too  gree:i  corn,  if  put  into  the  silo, 
will  make  silage  that  has  an  excessively  high  amount  of  acid  and  a 
reduced  feeding  value.  The  cattle  will  eat  it  fairly  well,  but  will  not 
relish  it  as  much,  nor  receive  as  much  nourishment  from  it  as  they 
would  from  silage  made  from  more  mature  corn. 

When  the  silage  is  elevated  into  the  silo  by  the  blower  or  elevator,  it 
is  not  evenly  distributed,  and  consequently  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a 
man  in  the  silo  to  fork  the  silage  about.  This  will  insure  an  even  distri- 
bution of  the  light  and  heavy  parts  of  the  silage.  The  man  in  the  silo 
can  also  devote  part  of  his  time  to  tramping  the  silage,  especially  around 
the  edges.  Tramping  and  packing  the  silage  will  add  greatly  to  its 
keeping  qualities  by  excluding  the  air. 

The  cost  of  filling  a  silo  has  been  estimated  to  average  about  56  cents 
per  ton,  the  range  of  cost  being  from  40  to  76  cents.  The  difference  is 
due  to  the  distance  the  corn  must  b-j  hauled,  the  experience  and  skill  of 

the  men  doing  the  work, 
and  the  size  and  power  of 
the  machines  used. 


SUGGESTIONS 

FOR     BUILDING 

SILOS 

There  are  many  types 
of  silos,  and  most  all  of 
them  are  good.  The  kind 
of  silo  to  be  built  must 
be  determined  by  local 
conditions  and  personal 
preference.  A  number  of 
the  most  common  types 
are  shown  on  this  and  the 
following  pages.  As  a 
rule,  it  will  pay  in  the 
long  run  to  build  the 
most  substantial  silo. 

No  matter  what  type  of 
silo  is  selected,  it  should 
be  well  built.  The  silo 
must  be  perfectly  air- 
tight, and  substantial 
enough  so  that  the  pres- 
sure of  the  silage  will  not 
cause  it  to  bulge.  It  must 
be  fairly  deep,  so  that  the 
weight  of  the  silage  will 
cause  pressure  enough  to 
exclude  the  air. 


A  wood  silo  of  the  stave  type 


37 


One  of  the  first  things  to  be  considered  when  about  to  build  a  silo  is 
the  size  necessary.  The  diameter  of  the  silo  should  be  such  that,  when 
feeding,  three  or  four  inches  of  silage  will  be  removed  from  the  top 
every  day.  This  is  important,  as  the  silage  when  exposed  to  the  air 
molds  and  becomes  unfit  for  feeding,  but  if  three  or  four  inches  are 
removed  evenly  from  the  top  each  day,  the  silage  will  not  be  exposed  to 
the  air  long  enough  to  become  damaged.  If  more  silage  is  needed  than 
can  be  stored  in  a  silo  twenty  feet  in  diameter  by  fifty  feet  high,  a  second 
silo  is  preferable  to  a  silo  larger  than  the  above  dimensions.  If  the  silo 
is  more  than  twenty  feet  in  width,  it  is  probable  that  enough  will  not  be 
removed  at  each  feeding  to  prevent  molding.  It  is  impracticable  to 
elevate  the  silage  more  than  fifty  feet,  as  this  is  about  as  high  as  it  can  be 
conveniently  elevated  with  ordinary  farm  power.  Besides,  the  weight  of 
the  silage  exerts  great  pressure  against  the  sides  of  the  silo,  and  if  the 
silo  is  built  extremely  high  there  will  be  danger  of  bulging  at  the  bottom, 
where  the  pressure  is  greatest. 

The  silo  should  be  built  right  up  against  the  barn  in  which  the  silage 
is  to  be  fed,  preferably  at  the  end  of  the  building,  as  this  will  be  found 
most  convenient  for  feeding.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  silo  should  be 
set  off  at  a  distance  from  the  barn,  and  if  this  is  done  the  work  of  bring- 
ing the  silage  to  the  barn  will  be  considerable.  The  construction  of  the 
silo  should  not  be  undertaken  by  inexperienced  persons.  Silo  building 


Two  large  cement  silos 


has  become  quite  common  in  many  localities,  and  it  will  not  be  hard  to 
find  help  who  have  had  some  experience  in  this  work. 

The  foundation  should  be  solid  and  well-made,  as  is  true  regarding 
the  foundation  of  any  permanent  building.  As  the  weight  placed  upon 
the  foundation  is  that  of  the  upper  part  of  the  silo,  the  necessary  thick- 
ness of  the  walls  will  depend  upon  the  material  used  in  constructing  the 
part  of  the  silo  that  is  above  ground.  A  concrete  silo  will  naturally 
require  a  thicker  foundation  than  a  light  stave  silo.  The  foundation 
should  extend  below  the  frost  line,  and  the  ground  in  which  it  sets  should 
be  well  drained.  If  the  foundation  must  be  built  in  soil  which  contains 
a  considerable  amount  of  moisture,  the  foundation  and  floor  should  rest 
on  a  bed  of  gravel  or  cinders,  and  drain  tile  should  be  provided  to  carry 
off  the  water. 

The  inside  walls  should  be  smooth  and  perfectly  perpendicular,  so 
that  the  silage  can  settle  evenly  without  sticking  on  the  walls.  The 
walls  must  be  air-tight  and  water-tight.  Air  will  cause  the  silage  to  rot, 
and  loss  of  moisture  will  cause  it  to  become  dry  and  moldy.  Not  only 
should  the  walls  be  water-tight,  but  they  should  be  constructed  of 
material  which  will  not  absorb  the  water  from  the  silage,  as  this  will  dry 
the  silage  and  cause  molding  just  the  same  as  if  the  water  leaked  out. 

The  capacity  of  round  silos,  which  are  the  only  kind  that  should 
be  built,  is  not  readily  computed,  but  the  table  on  the  following  page 
has  been  prepared  so  that  an  approximate  capacity  can  be  seen  at  a 
glance.  This  table  includes  silos  10  to  26  feet  in  diameter  and  from  20 
to  32  feet  high. 


Two  wood  silos,  one  lined  with  vitrified  brick  and  the  other  with  lath  and  plaster 


Table  Giving  the  Approximate    Capacity  in  Tons  of    Cylindric 
Well  Matured  Corn  Silage 


Silos  for 


Depth  of 
Silo- 
feet 

Inside  Diameter  of  Silo—  Feet 

10 

12 

14 

15 

16 

18 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

20  
21  
22  .... 

26 
28 
30 
22 
34 
36 
38 
40 
42 
45 
47  . 
49 
51 

38 
40 
43 
46 
49 
52 
55 
58 
61 
64 
68 
70 
73 

51 
55 

59 
62 
66 
70 
74 
78 
83 
88 
93 
96 
101 

59 
63 
67 
72 
76 
81 
85 
90 
95 
100 
105 
110 
115 

67 
72 
77 
82 
87 
90 
97 
103 
108 
114 
119 
125 
131 

85 
91 
97 
103 
110 
116 
123 
130 
137 
144 
151 
158 
166 

105 
112 
120 
128 
135 
143 
152 
160 
169 
178 
187 
195 
205 

115 
123 
132 
141 
149 
158 
168 
177 
186 
196 
206 
215 
226 

127 
135 
145 
154 
164 
173 
184 
194 
204 
215 
226 
236 
248 

138 
148 
158 
169 
179 
190 
201 
212 
223 
235 
247 
258 
271 

151 

161 
172 
184 
195 
206 
219 
231 
843 
256 
269 
282 
295 

163 
175 

187 
199 
212 
224 
237 
251 
264 
278 
292 
305 
320 

177 
189 
202 
816 
229 
242 
257 
271 
285 
300 
315 
330 
346 

23  
24  

25  
26 

27 

28  

29  

30  
31  
32  

Referring  to  the  table  below,  it  will  be  an  easy  matter  to  determine  the 
size  of  the  silo  needed.  This  table  is  based  on  the  assumption  that  40  pounds 
of  silage  will  be  fed  per  head  for  a  period  of  180  days: 


Size  of  SilO'  Needed 

Silage 

Acreage 

Number 

Pounds 

Consumed 

Required 

of  Cows 

Required 
Daily 

Yearly- 
Tons 

Diameter 
Feet 

Height 
Feet 

Capacity 
Tons 

at   15  Tons 
per  Acre 

6 

240 

22 

*     J    9 
110 

20 

16 

22 
22 

1.5 
1.5 

9 

360 

33 

MO 
1  11 

24 
22 

34 
34 

2.4 
2.4 

13 

520 

42 

J10 
1  10 

28 
30 

42 
47 

2.8 
3.0 

15 

600 

54 

J12 
1  14 

26 
21 

55 
55 

O    IV 

I'.l 

20 

800 

72 

J12 
1  14 

32 

26 

74 
74 

5.0 

5.0 

25 

1000 

90 

J12 
114 

38 
30 

94 
91 

6.4 
6.1 

•30 

1200 

108 

j  14 
115 

34 
31 

109 
110 

7.3 

7.4 

35 

1400 

126 

(16 
114 

31 

38 

125 

128 

8.4 
8.6 

40 

1600 

144 

118 

M6 

29 
34 

144 
143 

9.4 
9.3 

45 

1800 

162 

j  18 
1  16 

32 

38 

166 
167 

11.0 
11.1 

50 

-2000 

180 

l  IS 
'»  16 

34 
40 

181 
180 

12.1 
12.0 

40 


THE  BAB  COCK  TEST 


The  Babcock  test  has  been  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  demonstrating 
the  fact  that  too  large  a  percentage  of  dairy  cows  are  kept  at  an  actual 
loss  to  their  owners.  With  milk  scales  and  the  Babcok  test,  a 
farmer  can  learn  just  what  each  cow  in  his  herd  is  producing. 
In  this  way  he  can  easily  locate  and  cull  out  those  cows  which 
do  not  return  a  good  profit  or  those  which  are  not  paying 
for  their  feed.  Weighing  the  milk  is  not  sufficient,  as  the 
milk  from  different  cows  varies  greatly  in  percentage  of 
butter  fat,  and  it  is  butter  fat  that  determines  the  market 
value  of  milk.  Hence,  the  Babcock  test  is  of  immeasurable 
value  to  the  man  who  keeps  milk  cows.  It  gives  him  a 
simple,  reliable  means  of  ascertaining  which  cows  in  his 
herd  are  producing  enough  butter  fat  to  make  it  worth 
while  to  keep  them.  Farmers  who  do  not  use  this  means 
of  finding  out  what  their  cows  are  doing  usually  make  the 
excuse  that  it  is  too  much  trouble.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
work  of  keeping  these  records  is  not  nearly  so  great  as  it 
may  seem.  Even  if  it  were  a  great  deal  more  trouble  than 
it  is,  it  would  be  better  to  put  in  time  finding  the  unprofit- 
able cows  and  getting  rid  of  them  than  to  go  on  feeding 
and  milking  cows  that  do  not  produce  enough  to  pay  for 
their  feed  and  care. 

HOW  TO  KEEP  A  RECORD  OF  EACH  COW'S 
PRODUCTION 

In  keeping  a  record  of  the  milk  and  butter-fat  production  of  a  herd 
there  is  needed :  a  spring  balance  scale,  pint  glass  jars,  test  bottles, 
pipette,  acid  measure,  a  bottle  of  sulphuric  acid,  preservative  tablets,  a 


A  Babcock  Milk  Testing  Outfit 
41 


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centrifugal  machine,  and  a  sheet  for  recording  the  weight  and  test  of 
each  cow's  milk.  The  record  sheet,  ruled  as  shown  on  the  opposite 
page,  should  be  placed  with  the  scales  in  a  convenient  position  in  the 
barn  and  the  milk  of  each  cow  weighed  at  each  milking,  and 
the  weight  recorded  on  the  sheet. 

The  testing  of  the  milk  for  butter-fat  can  be  done  daily, 
weekly,  or  monthly.  The  practice  of  making  the  test  once  a 
month  meets  most  requirements.  The  monthly  test  does  not 
involve  so  much  work  as  more  frequent  tests,  and  is  a  very  good 
indication  of  the  per  cent  of  butter-fat  the  cow  is  producing. 

In  making  this  test,  samples  should  be  taken  from  each  milk- 
ing for  a  period  of  three  days  and  placed  in  pint  glass  jars.  To 
prevent  the  samples  from  souring,  a  small  corrosive  sublimated 
tablet  should  be  put  into  the  jar.  A  small  dipper  (about  the  size 
of  a  shotgun  shell)  with  a  long  handle  proves  most  satisfactory 
for  taking  the  sample.  Before  taking  the  sample,  the  milk  in  the 
pail  should  be  well  stirred  with  the  dipper.  |||H  I 

The  testing  should  be  done  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
samples  from  six  milkings  have  been  taken.  The  operations  of 
this  test  are  as  follows:  First.  The  samples  should  be  stirred  by 
pouring  into  and  out  of  an  extra  jar  several  times.  In  making 
the  Babcock  test,  17.6  C.  C.  of  milk  is  used  and  is  measured  by 
means  of  a  pipette,  which  is  marked  to  show  when  this  amount 
is  in  it.  When  using  the  pipette,  place  the  small  point  in  the 
milk  and  with  the  other  end  in  the  mouth  suck  the  air  out  of  the 
pipette  until  the  milk  rises  above  the  17.6  C.  C.  mark.  Then  pip*tte 
quickly  place  the  tip  of  the  forefinger  over  the  end  of  the  pipette 
which  has  been  in  the  mouth.  This  will  prevent  the  milk  from  running 
out  of  the  pipette.  By  slightly  changing  the  pressure  of  the  finger  on 

the  end  of  the  pipette,  the  milk 
can  be  allowed  to  run  down 
slowly  until  the  17.6  C.  C.  mark 
is  reached.  Then  press  the 
finger  firmly  on  the  end  of  the 
pipette  to  prevent  any  more  of 
the  milk  from  running  out. 

Second.  When  exactly 
17.6  C.  C.  of  milk  are  contained 
in  the  pipette,  place  the  small 
end  of  the  pipette  in  the  top 
of  the  test  bottle  and  gradu- 
ally reduce  the  pressure  of  the 
finger  on  the  other  end.  The 
pipette  should  not  be  put 
straight  down  into  the  test 
bottle;  instead,  the  bottle  and 
pipette  should  be  at  a  slight 
angle  so  that  the  milk  will 
_.  .  flow  down  one  side  of  the 

Showing  proper  way  to  hold  Pipette  and  Test  ,      ,       .      _.  , 

Bottle  when  filling  Test  Bottle  neck  of  the  bottle  and  at  the 


Acid  Measure 


same  time  leave  a  space  on  the  other  side  for  the  escape  of  the  air 
which  the  milk  displaces.  Don't  allow  the  milk  to  run  out  of  the  pipette 
too  fast  or  it  will  choke  the  neck  of  the  bottle  and  overflow.  This  would 
require  washing  the  bottle  and  measuring  a  new  sample 
of  milk  with  the  pipette. 

Third.  Take  the  small  acid  measure  and  till  to  the 
point  marked  17.5  C.  C.  with  sulphuric  acid.  The  sul- 
phuric acid  used  in  making  the  Babcock  test  should  have 
a  specific  gravity  of  1.82.  This  acid  can  be  secured  at 
any  drug  store  or  from  dealers  in  dairy  supplies.  In 
pouring  the  acid  into  the  test  bottle,  into  which  has  been 
placed  17.6  C.  C.  of  milk,  hold  the  acid  measure  and  test 
bottles  at  an  angle,  just  as  was  done  when  the  milk  was 
being  put  in.  This  is  important,  because  there  must  be 
room  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle  for  the  air  to  escape.  If 
there  is  not  the  acid  will  bubble  over  and  spoil  the  test. 
When  handling  sulphuric  acid  wear  old  overalls  or  an 
apron,  as  the  acid  burns  clothing.  Have  a  supply  of 
water  convenient  to  wash  off  any  acid  that  may  spill  on  the  hands 
or  clothing. 

Fourth.  As  soon  as  the  acid  has  been 
poured  into  the  test  bottle  with  the  milk 
it  will  be  noted  that  the  milk  and  acid  lay 
in  two  distinct  layers — the  acid  in  the 
bottom  of  the  bottle  and  the  milk  on  the 
top  of  it.  The  immediate  mixing  of  these 
two  layers  is  important.  Do  this  by  taking 
the  bottle  by  the  neck  and  swinging  it  in 
a  circle  until  acid  and  milk  are  completely 
mixed.  This  mixture  has  a  uniform  brown 
color  and  becomes  very  hot.  On  the  rough 
spot  on  the  side  of  the  test  bottle  write  with 

an  ordinary  lead  pencil  the  cow's  number  whose  milk  is  being  tested,  or 
write  some  number  that  will  serve  as  a  means  of  identifying  the  bottle. 
Fifth.  After  the  milk  and  acid  are  thoroughly  mixed,  place  the  test 
bottle,  together  with  other  test  bottles  which 
have  been  filled  in  a  similar  manner  with  the 
milk  of  other  cows,  into  the  centrifugal  or 
whirling  machine.  After  making  sure  that  the 
bottles  are  so  placed  in  the  machine  that  they 
balance,  turn  the  crank  four  or  five  minutes  at 
the  speed  indicated  in  the  directions  supplied 
with  the  machine. 

Sixth.  After  whirling  the  bottles  in  the 
machine  four  or  five  minutes,  stop  turning  and 
allow  them  to  gradually  come  to  a  stop.  Then 

take  the  pipette  and  add  to  each  bottle,  without  taking  it  out  of  the 
machine,  a  small  amount  of  hot  soft  water.  The  water  put  into  the 
bottles  should  come  to  the  bottom  of  the  neck  or  a  little  above  it. 
Then  start  the  machine  again,  and  whirl  the  bottles  for  at  least  two 


Whirl  the  test  bott'.e  in  a  circle 
to  mix  the  acid  and  milk 


A  small  four-bottle  Babcock 
tester 


44 


Z^  7 


minutes.     Next  add  enough  more  hot  water  to  bring  the  fat  which  has 
gathered  at  the  bottom  of  the  neck  to  a  point  between  the  top  and  bottom 
figures  of   the  scale   on   the  bottle.     Whirl   for  one 
minute  more. 

Seventh.  Remove  the  bottle  from  the  centrifugal 
machine  and  proceed  to  read  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the 
neck  of  each  bottle.  It  is  important  that  the  reading 
be  made  while  the  fat  is  hot,  therefore  set  the  bottles 
in  a  dish  of  water  at  the  temperature  of  130  or  140 
degrees.  The  scale  on  the  Babcock  test  bottle  is 
graduated  from  0  to  10  per  cent.  The  scale  on  the 
neck  between  0  and  10  is  divided  into  10  spaces,  each 
representing  1  per  cent  of  fat  in  100  pounds  of  milk. 
Each  of  these  spaces  is  subdivided  into  5  equal  parts, 
each  representing  .2  of  1  per  cent.  If  the  Yat  found  in 
the  neck  after  the  whirling  has  been  completed  extends 
from  0  to  4  it  means  that  the  milk  tested  contains 
4  pounds  of  butter  fat  for  every  100  pounds  of  milk, 
The  Beading  of  the  or?  jn  otner  WOrds,  the  milk  tests  4  per  cent  butter  fat. 
from  A  to  B,  that  is  It  is  not  very  often  that  the  bottom  of  the  fat  column 
between  the  extreme  wm  be  formed  exactly  at  the  point  marked  0,  and  in 

top   and    bottom   of  ., 

the   fat   column  most     CaS6S    lt 

will  be  some- 
what above  this  point.  Hence,  the 
work  of  reading  can  be  greatly 
facilitated  if  a  pair  of  dividers  is 
used.  In  using  the  dividers  adjust 
the  points  to  the  top  and  bottom  of 
the  fat  column  and  then,  without 
changing  the  distance  between  the 
points,  place  one  point  on  0  and  for  reading  the  test 
read  on  the  scale  the  percentage  of  fat  which  is  indicated  by  the  position 
of  the  other  point. 


First  position  of  the 
dividers    when  used 


Second  position  of  the 
dividers  when  used 
for  reading  the  test 


Dolly  Bloom,  Guernsey  Cow.     Has  a  record  of  17,297.5  pounds  milk  in  one  year, 
testing  4.87  per  cent,  yielding  836.2  pounds  butter  fat 

45 


TESTING  SKIM  MILK 

When  testing  skim  niilk,  a  double-neck  skim  milk  test  bottle  should 
be  used,  as  it  gives  a  better  reading.  About  20  C.  C.  of  acid  should  be 
used,  as  in  skim  milk  there  is  a  larger  amount  of  solids  not  fat  than  in 
whole  milk.  These  must  be  destroyed  before  the  fat  can  be  freed.  Other- 
wise, the  operations  are  the  same  as  for  testing  whole  milk. 


tfl 


Skim  Milk  Test 
Bottle 


TESTING  CREAM 

The  operation  of  testing  cream  with  the  Babcock  test  is  the  same  as 
for  testing  milk,  with  two  exceptions:  First,  a  special  cream  test  bottle 
should  be  used.  This  cream  test  bottle  has  a  larger  neck  than  the  milk 
test  bottle.  This  is  because  the  amount  of  fat  in  cream  is  much  greater 
than  in  milk.  Second,  the  18  grams  of  cream  used  in  making  the  test 
cannot  be  measured  with  the  pipette,  but  instead  must  be  weighed.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  weight  of  cream  varies  according  to  its  rich- 
ness. Furthermore,  cream  is  thick  and  a  considerable  part  would  stick 
to  the  inside  of  the  pipette.  There  is  also  another  objection  to  measur- 
ing the  cream  with  a  pipette,  and  that  is  that  cream,  especially  fresh  sep- 
arator cream,  often  contains  bubbles.  Therefore,  to  get  an  accurate  test 
the  cream  must  be  weighed.  There  are  scales  made  especially  for  this 
purpose,  and  these  can  be  secured  from  dealers  in  dairy  supplies.  The 
remainder  of  the  operation  for  testing  cream  is  the  same  as  for  testing 
milk.  The  testing  of  cream  is  much  more  difficult,  however,  than  the 
testing  of  milk  and  considerably  more  experience  is  necessary  to  make 
a  good  cream  test. 

46 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  MILK 

The  composition  of  inilk  varies  greatly,  depending  upon  the  breed 
and  individuality  of  the  cow,  the  season  of  the  year,  lactation  period, 
milking,  and  environment.?  The  average  composition,  however,  which 
has  been  determined  by  200,000  analyses  reported  by  a  well-known 
dairy  authority  is  as  follows: 

Water 87.17 

Fat ._  3.69 

Milk  Sugar. 4.88 

Casein 3.02 

Protein,    Albumen... _ .53 

Ash..  .71 


COMPOSITION  OF  SKIM  MILK 

When  cream  is  taken  from  the  milk  by  a  separator  or  by  hand, 
practically  all  of  the  fat  is  taken  out.  The  skim  milk  which  remains  is 
frequently  referred  to  as  "serum,"  and  it ''contains  everything  but  the 
fat,  as  follows: 

Water 90.68 

Fat .02 

Milk  Sugar.... 5.00 

Casein  and  Albumen 3. 50 

Ash..  .80 


COMPOSITION    OF    BUTTER 

Butter  is  composed  of  fat,  water,  proteids,  milk  sugar,  ash,  and  salt 
in  the  following  average  proportions,  according  to  a  well-known  dairy 

authority: 

From  From 

Fresh  Cream         Kipened  Cream 

Fat.. 83.75  82.97 

Water .13.03  13.78 

Proteids  (Curd). .64  .84 

Milk  Sugar .35  .39 

Ash .14  .16 

Salt 2.09  1.86 

The  quality  of  butter  is  more  affected  by  the  quality  of  cream  or  milk 
from  which  it  is  made  and  the  methods  employed  in  manufacture  than 
by  the  composition. 

The  English,  German  and  United  States  governments  endeavor  to 
protect  the  consumer  of  butter  by  recommending  16  per  cent  of  water  as 
a  maximum  limit.  Butter  is  frequently  found  which  contains  more  than 
16  per  cent  of  water,  but  this  is  in  violation  of  the  law.  The  amount  of 
fat  in  the  butter  varies  with  the  water— the  more  water,  the  less  fat 
there  will  be.  Butter  which  contains  more  than  18  per  cent  of  water 
will  appear  dead  and  dull.  It  will  also  be  leaky. 

47 


STANDARD  FOR  JUDGING  BUTTER 

In  judging  butter,  the  different  characteristics  are  given  different 
values  according  to  their  relative  importance.  Below  is  given  a  standard 
used  commercially  and  based  upon  100  as  perfect : 

Perfect 

Flavor .   . . : 45 

Body 25 

Color 15 

Salt 10 

Style 5 

1M" 

FLAVOR.  —  As  shown  in  the  score  above,  ilavor  is  the  most  important 
characteristic.  Good  butter  should  possess  a  clean,  mild,  rich,  creamy 
flavor,  and  should  have  a  delicate,  mild,  pleasant  aroma.  FLAT  flavor  is 
noticeable  in  butter  made  from  unripened  cream.  RANCID  flavor  is  applied 
to  butter  which  has  a  strong  flavor,  and  develops  in  butter  which  has 
been  standing  a  long  time.  CHEESY  flavor  is  common  to  butter  which  has 
little  or  no  salt.  WEEDY  flavors  are  due  to  the  condition  of  the  milk 
before  churned  and  are  caused  by  the  cows  pasturing  where  weeds  are 
growing,  such  as  wild  onions,  garlic,  etc.  ACID  flavor  is  due  to  improper 
ripening  of  the  cream. 

BODY.  —  Next  in  importance  to  flavor  is  body.  Butter  that  is  greasy, 
tallowy,  spongy,  or  sticky  is  undesirable.  The  body  must  be  firm  and 
uniform. 

COLOR.  —  The  color  should  be  bright  and  even,  not  streaky  or  mottled. 
A  light  straw  color  is  the  color  most  desired. 

SALT.  —  The  amount  of  salt  depends  upon  what  the  market  wants.  The 
principal  thing  is  to  have  the  salt  thoroughly  dissolved  and  evenly  dis- 
tributed. Medium  salting  is  most  desired. 

STYLE.  —  By  style  is  meant  the  appearance  of  the  butter  and  package. 
It  should  be  clean  and  neat. 


Colantha  4th's  Johanna.     Holstein-Friesian   Cow  which   produced  in  one  year   27,432.5 
pounds  milk  testing  3.64  per  cent,  yielding  998.25  pounds  butter  fat. 

48 


This  Holstein-Friesian  Cow,  Banostine  Bell  De  Kol,  holds  the  world's  record  for  butter 

production,  having  produced  in  one  year  27,404  pounds  of  milk 

containing   1058  pounds  of  butter  fat 

BUTTER  ON  THE  FARM 

It  is  possible  for  the  farmer  to  make  the  highest  possible  grade  of 
butter  on  the  farm,  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  has  the  entire  control  of  the 
milk  from  the  time  it  is  drawn  until  it  is  turned  out  a  finished  product 
ready  for  the  market.  Especially  is  this  true  where  the  farmer  has  a 
small  separator. 

With  proper  ripening  before  churning,  and  careful  observation  of 
necessary  conditions  for  the  production  of  the  best  butter,  the  farmer 
should  be  able  to  economize  in  the  making  and  insure  a  distinct  saving 
by  feeding  the  by-products  to  the  pigs  and  calves. 

If  the  farmer  can  furnish  an 
even  grade  and  a  regular  supply 
of  butter  the  year  round,  he  can 
with  a  little  effort  readily  find  an 
excellent  market.  People  living 
in  towns  and  cities  generally  pre- 
fer to  buy  butter  direct  from  the 
farmer,  if  possible,  and  are  will- 
ing to  give  the  farmer  his  price. 
Besides  the  income  derived 
from  butter  sales,  the  by-products 
fed  to  pigs  and  calves  are  steadily 
increasing  the  value  of  young-  beef 
and  pork.  The  buttermilk,  if  fed 
directly  after  churning,  is  always 
productive  of  good  results,  as  the 
chances  of  fermentation  or  con- 
tamination are  fewer  than  in  the 
creamery  and  consequently  it 
—,.  gives  better  results  as  a  feeding 

This  style  of  churn  proves  very  satisfactory 


on  the  average  farm 


ration. 


49 


CLEANLINESS 

Volumes  and  volumes  could  be  written  on  the  subject  of  cleanliness 
and  its  relation  to  the  dairy.  There  are  thousands  of  arguments  in  its 
favor  and  the  statistics  covering  the  point  cannot  well  be  ignored  by  the 
farmer  or  the  dairyman. 

Clean  cows,  clean  udders,  clean  hands,  clean  pails,  sterilized  uten- 
sils and  separators,  clean  and  thoroughly  ventilated,  sweet-smelling 
dairies  —  these  are  some  of  the  conditions  under  which  milk,  cream 
and  butter  can  be  best  preserved  and  utilized  for  home  use  and  for  the 
market. 

Do  not  stir  up  unnecessary  dust  before  milking.  Each  minute  part- 
icle of  dust  settling  on  the  milk  means  that  much  taint  and  consequent 
germination  of  bacteria.  All  strainers  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean. 
Sanitary  wire  gauze  strainers  are  greatly  to  be  preferred  to  the  common 
cloth  strainers  so  much  in  vogue.  All  foreign  odors  should  be  abolished 
from  the  premises,  as  milk,  cream  and  butter  have  a  natural  tendency  to 
absorb  bad  smells. 

The  stable  should  be  provided  with  brushes  readily  attached  to  the 
milking  stools  or  accompanying  them.  The  milker  should  be  encouraged 
to  use  these  brushes  before  milking,  and  if  such  milkers  are  naturally 
cleanly,  they  should  also  be  encouraged  to  dampen  the  udders  before 
beginning  to  milk.  If  the  milkers  are  not  naturally  orderly,  systematic 
and  cleanly,  discharge  them  and  either  get  clean  milkers  or  quit  the 
business.  It  is  impossible  to  make  a  filthy  man  clean  by  any  set  of  rules 
or  by  any  amount  of  possible  supervision.  "Though  thou  shouldst  bray 
a  fool  in  a  mortar  among  wheat  with  a  pestle,  yet  will  not  his  foolishness 
depart  from  him.  *' 

The  milk  is  received  in  pails  washed  in  this  way:  They  are  first  rinsed 
in  tepid  water,  then  washed  in  water  too  hot  for  the  hands  and  containing 
some  cleansing  powder  or  sal  soda,  the  washing  being  done  with 
brushes  rather  than  cloths.  They  are  then  rinsed  with  boiling  water 
and  steamed,  if  possible;  otherwise  they  are  taken  from  the  rinsing 
water,  the  loose  drops  shaken  off  and  al- 
lowed to  dry  without  wiping.  The  milk 
is  then  strained  through  wire  strainers  or 
through  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  cheese- 
cloth, which  pieces  are  washed  and  scalded 
or  boiled  between  successive  hours  of 
milking. 

After  straining,  the  milk  is  either 
aerated,  cooled  and  sent  to  the  factory, 
or  it  is  run  through  the  separator  at 
home. 

The  cream  separator  is  one  of  the  best 
milk  clarifiers.  It  removes  the  finest  par- 
ticles of  dirt  from  the  milk  which  could  not 
be  removed  by  a  cloth  or  wire  strainer. 
Even  if  the  whole  milk  is  to  be  sold  at 
retail,  it  should  be  run  through  the  separa- 
tor for  clarifying  purposes. 


Butter  sells  better  when  put  up  in 
attractive  prints.  A  butter  mold 
similar  to  the  one  illustrated  here 
can  be  secured  at  a  small  cost 


50 


Missouri  Chief  Josephine,  a  Hols  tern  cow  with  a  year's  record  of  26,861  pounds 
of  milk  containing  740.5  pounds  of  butter  fat 

CREAM  RIPENING  AND  STARTERS 

Cream  ripening  is  generally  understood  to  mean  the  treatment  and 
process  which  the  cream  undergoes  in  the  ripening  vat  before  it  is  put 
into  the  churn;  a  process  which  secures  to  the  butter  that  fine  flavor  and 
scent  which  is  so  highly  desirable  and  prized  in  all  good  butter.  This 
ripening  is  caused  by  the  bacteria  contained  in  the  cream  which  produce 
certain  acids  through  decomposition.  It  is  generally  believed  by  pro- 
gressive dairy  scientists  that  lactic  acid-producing  bacteria  are  most 
desirable  for  ripening  purposes.  There  are  many  species,  however,  all  of 
which  vary  in  results  when  applied  to  the  ripening  process.  Over  one 
hundred  species  have  been  analyzed  and  studied.  Wide  experiments 
show  that  the  best  temperature  for  ripening  is  between  sixty  and  seventy 
degrees. 

The  "starter,"  used  in  a  dairy  sense,  is  the  name  given  to  the  medium 
which  contains  the  greatest  number  of  desirable  and  active  bacteria  for 
producing  the  best  flavors  in  butter. 

Some  starters  come  from  the  laboratory  in  a  liquid  or  powder  form. 
The  most  common,  however,  are  the  so-called  natural  starters  so  much 
in  use,  such  as  buttermilk,  sour  milk,  and  sour  cream.  These  latter  are 
not  perhaps  the  best,  but  serve  the  purpose  and  give  better  results  than 
if  no  starter  is  used  at  all. 

The  flavor  of  butter  is  largely  controlled  by  the  kind  of  bacteria  that 
predominate  in  the  cream.  Certain  groups  of  bacteria  are  known  as 
flavor-producing  or  lactic  acid  bacteria.  Other  groups  are  known  as 
putrefactive  bacteria  or  those  that  cause  the  ordinary  decay.  During  the 
winter  months  when  cows  are  milked  in  the  stables  the  latter  kind  seem 
to  predominate  in  the  milk  and  give  the  butter  an  undesirable  flavor. 
Germs  get  into  the  milk  from  an  external  source,  coming  from  manure 
and  from  the  atmosphere,  hence  very  poorly  ventilated  barns  might  be 
called  incubators  for  undesirable  bacteria. 

51 


To  overcome  the  effects  of  the  latter,  a  starter  should  be  used.  Most 
creameries  use  commercial  starters  that  are  prepared  in  laboratories. 
A  good,  natural  starter  that  will  answer  the  purpose  equally  well  can 
be  prepared  on  the  farm.  Put  pint  glass  fruit  jars  into  cold  water  and 
let  the  water  gradually  come  to  the  boiling  point.  This  will  sterilize  the 
jar  or  destroy  all  germs  in  the  jar.  After  the  jars  have  cooled,  close  them 
until  time  for  using.  At  milking  time  carefully  brush  and  dampen  the 
udder,  then  after  a  few  streams  of  milk  have  been  drawn,  milk  directly 
into  your  sterilized  glass  jar,  filling  it  half  full.  Cover  the  same  and  let 
it  stand,  keeping  the  temperature  as  near  65  or  70  degrees  as  possible 
until  the  milk  coagulates  or  thickens.  If  the  curd  in  the  glass  jar  is  free 
from  pin  holes  or  little  openings  in  the  sides  and  possesses  a  pleasant 
sour  taste,  you  can  be  sure  that  you  have  a  good  starter.  This  we  call 
the  "mother  starter."  To  propagate  it  or  prepare  it  for  the  cream,  put 
into  a  clean  tin  pail  a  few  quarts  of  skimmed  milk  from  the  separator 
and  heat  the  same  to  about  170  or  175  degrees.  The  heating  can  best 
be  accomplished  by  putting  the  pail  of  skimmed  milk  into  a  larger  vessel 
containing  hot  water,  thus  preventing  any  danger  of  scorching  the  milk. 
Cool  your  milk  now  to  about  70  degrees  and  then  add  to  it  2  or  3  per 
cent  of  the  mother  starter  from  the  glass  jar  above  mentioned.  Keep  the 
mixture  or  starter  at  a  temperature  of  65  or  70  degrees  until  it  begins  to 
coagulate  or  sour.  Add  to  your  cream  from  six  to  ten  pounds  of  starter 
to  every  100  pounds  of  cream.  Stir  the  starter  thoroughly  through  the 
cream.  You  are  thus  adding  to  your  cream  an  enormous  quantity  of  the 
right  kind  of  bacteria  which  will  enable  you  to  control  the  flavor  of  the 
butter. 

As  soon  as  the  starter  thickens  it  should  be  kept  at  as  low  a  tem- 
perature as  possible  to  prevent  further  souring.  A  new  starter  can  be 
made  from  time  to  time  by  preparing  fresh  skim-milk  as  above  described 
and  adding  to  it  a  little  of  the  previous  starter. 


Dairymaid  of  Pinehurst,  a  Guernsey  Cow  with  a  year's  record,  when  three  years  old, 
of  14,571.4  pounds  of  milk  and  852.82  pounds  of  butter  fat 


CHURNING 

The  primitive  method  of  churning  was  to  shake  the  milk  without 
separation  in  bags  made  from  animal  skins,  preferably  goat  skins.  More 
has  been  done  in  the  way  of  improving  upon  the  system  in  the  last  fifty 
years  than  during  the  previous  5,000  years.  In  Europe  not  so  long  ago, 
churning  in  many  places  consisted  of  shaking  cream  in  glass  bottles,  jars, 
or  other  convenient  receptacles.  This  necessarily  was  very  fatiguing, 
but  a  marked  improvement  was  made  with  the  introduction  of  the  dash 
churn,  in  which  the  cream  was  agitated  by  the  up  and  down  movement 
of  the  long  handle,  to  which  was  attached,  at  the  lower  end,  a  round 
perforated  plate  of  wood  or  some  other  material.  This  churn  was  a 
direct  forerunner  of  the  rotary  churn  now  so  widely  used  in  Europe. 

The  most  popular  churn  in  the  butter  factories  is  the  so-called 
''combined  churn,"  a  strictly  modern  and  up-to-date  device  which 
churns,  washes,  salts,  and  works  the  butter  without  necessitating  its 
removal  from  the  churn.  The  movement  of  the  churn  serves  to  keep 
flies  at  a  distance;  the  handling  of  the  butter  during  working  and  salting 
is  done  away  with,  and  the  temperature  of  the  butter  can  be  regulated  at 
will.  This  style  of  churn  is  rapidly  taking  the  place  of  other  devices  in 
Europe,  and  its  many  excellent  features  are  generally  recognized  in 
butter-producing  districts. 

In  churning,  a  medium  high  temperature  should  be  observed  for 
securing  the  best  results.  If  the  temperature  is  too  high,  a  soft,  lumpy 
butter  is  the  result,  which  appears  greasy  to  the  touch  and  is  very  sus- 
ceptible to  the  incorporation  of  buttermilk  in  larger  quantities  than 
desired. 

Too  low  a  temperature  is  also  to  be  carefully  avoided,  as  churning 
then  becomes  extremely  difficult.  The  cream  will  also  adhere  to  the 
inside  of  the  churn  and  the  butter  will  become  too  hard  for  taking  up 
the  salt  readily.  The  difficulty  which  is  sometimes  experienced  in  getting 
the  butter  to  break,  although  not  only  the  temperature  but  all  other 


This  style  of  butter  worker  is  used  on  many  farms 

53 


conditions  are  favorable,  can  easily  be  remedied  by  adding  a  little  salt  to 
the  cream. 

With  a  moderately  high  temperature  and  the  churn  two-thirds  full, 
quick  churning  is  insured  and  the  highest  possible  degree  of  agitation 
then  obtained.  The  agitation  is  evenly  distributed,  while  on  the  con- 
trary with  a  small  amount  of  cream,  much  of  it  will  stick  to  the  revolv- 
ing surface  or  churn  walls,  thus  hindering  rapid  churning. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  stop  churning  before  the  butter  flakes  or  kernels 
have  attained  a  size  which  will  prevent  them  from  being  strained  into 
the  buttermilk.  One  prominent  authority  says  that  the  butter  granules 
should  be  of  the  size  of  corn  kernels. 

The  butter  should  be  vashed  thoroughly  in  pure  water  of  about  the 
temperature  of  the  cream  while  being  churned.  The  churn  should  be 
cleaned,  washed  and  rinsed,  first  in  lukewarm  and  then  in  scalding  hot 
water,  and  finally  disinfected  with  slacked  lime  in  a  liquid  condition, 
which  is  considered  one  of  the  best  disinfectants  that  can  be  employed  in 
the  dairy.  Salt,  on  account  of  its  corroding  effects  on  iron,  should  never 
be  used.  Never  stand  the  churn  with  the  cover  hole  up  when  drying,  as 
there  will  always  be  more  or  less  dust  and  impurities  collected  in  this  way. 


This  illustration  shows  a  combined  churn  and  butter  worker.     This  machine  has  many 

advantages  over  separate  churn  and  butter  worker  for  the  farmer  who 

churns  from  50  to  100  pounds  of  cream  at  a  time 

54 


A  practical  Dairy  Farm  Power  House 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  BUILDING  A  FARM 
POWER  HOUSE 

That  a  gasoline  engine  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  dairy  farm  equip- 
ment is  now  conceded.  Many  of  the  most  progressive  farmers  who  own 
gasoline  engines  have  found  that  by  installing  an  engine  in  a  farm  power 
house  much  larger  profits  are  made ;  in  fact  the  engine  can  be  made  to 
pay  for  itself. 

In  a  power  house  the  engine  is  the  most  important  machine,  and 
should  be  installed  in  a  room  which  can  be  shut  off  from  the  remainder 
of  the  power  house.  The  engine  should  be  so  placed  that  all  sides  of  it 
are  accessible  —  at  least  three  feet  from  any  wall  —  and  should  be  in  a 
well-lighted,  well-ventilated  room  that  can  be  heated  in  the  winter  time. 
If  the  engine  is  crowded  into  a  corner,  it  is  impossible  to  get  at  all  the 
parts,  either  for  cleaning  or  repairing,  so  that  the  outfit  proves  incon- 
venient to  care  for. 

The  gasoline  tank  should  be  located  outside  of  the  engine  room  about 
thirty  feet  distant.  If  this  tank  is  properly  installed  in  the  ground,  it 
will  be  insurance  against  fire  risk,  ano^  will  be  kept  cool  in  the  summer, 
so  that  the  gasoline  will  not  evaporate. 

In  the  engine  room  might  be  located  the  grindstone,  emery  wheel, 
drill  and  work  bench  so  that  this  room  becomes  a  work-shop.  If  a 
dynamo  is  used  to  furnish  light  for  the  house,  it  can  be  located  in  this 
room. 

The  remaining  space  in  the  power  house  should  be  divided  into  two 
rooms.  In  one  room  locate  the  grinder,  sheller,  cutter,  and  fanning 
n..il.  The  grinder  and  sheller  might  be  located  close  to  a  window  so 
chat  it  is  possible  to  unload  from  the  wagon  through  the  window  into  the 
machine.  The  room  containing  these  machines  should,  be  tightly  parti- 
tioned off  from  the  rest  of  the  building  because  these  machines  when  in 

55 


operation  create  dust,  which  would  interfere  with  the  successful 
operation  of  other  machines. 

In  the  third  room  can  be  located  the  churn,  cream  separator,  pump 
and  drain,  dairy  table  and  a  large  washing  trough.  This  room  then 
Hbecomes  the  dairy. 

All  these  machines  in  the  power  house  should  be  driven  by  belt  from 
line  shafting  which  is  set  overhead  or  hung  from  the  ceiling. 

When  an  engine  of  four-horse  power  or  less  is  installed,  1^-inch  iron 
shafting  will  be  found  adequate.  If  a  larger  engine  is  installed,  2-inch 
iron  shafting  should  be  used.  Shafting,  pulleys,  hangers,  and  belts  can 
be  purchased  in  all  towns  and  small  cities  from  the  hardware  merchant, 
while  in  large  cities  these  supplies  are  furnished  by  iron  and  steel  supply 
houses. 

All  high  speed  machines  should  be  firmly  bolted  to  the  floor  and  oper- 
ated by  their  own  belts,  while  other  machines  can  be  moved  so  that  one 
or  two  belts  will  answer  for  driving  all  of  them;  that  is,  if  they  are  not 
to  be  driven  simultaneously.  Locate  the  machines  as  near  the  line  shaft- 
ing as  possible  in  order  to  avoid  long  belts.  The  center  line  of  the  engine 
must  be  exactly  at  right  angles  to  this  shafting,  and  to  obtain  the  best 
results  the  pulley  of  the  engine  must  be  in  line  with  the  pulley  which  is 
to  receive  the  power.  The  distance  from  the  line  shafting  to  the  crank 
shaft  of  the  engine  should  be  at  least  from  six  to  eight  times  the  diameter 
of  the  larger  pulley. 

The  line  shafting  can  be  extended  through  the  end  of  the  building  so 
that  a  blacksmith  bellows,  or  circular  cut-off  and  rip  saw,  band  saw,  or 
any  other  wood-working  machinery  can  be  driven  on  the  outside  from 
the  same  power.  The  accompanying  illustration  shows  an  arrangement 
which  has  proved  very  practical.  The  cost  of  such  an  installation  com- 
pared to  the  benefit  derived  is  very  slight. 


t 

An  I  H  C  Hopper-Cooled  Gasoline  Engine  mounted  on  skids 

56 


THE  VALUE  OF  THE  CREAM  SEPARATOR 

Butter  fat.  the  substance  that  gives  milk  its  market  value,  exists  in 
milk  in  the  form  of  minute  globules  and  is  the  lightest  part  of  the  milk. 
When  milk  is  allowed  to  stand  several  hours  in  pans,  cans  or  crocks,  the 
action  of  the  force  of  gravity  causes  the  heavy  milk  serum  to  sink  to  the 
bottom  and  the  butter  fat  rises  to  the  top  as  oil  rises  to  the  surface  of 
water. 

Methods  of  separation  which  depend  upon  the  unaided  action  of 
gravity  are  unsatisfactory  because  the  action  of  gravity  is  not  strong 
enough  to  bring  about  a  complete  and  rapid  separation. 

In  a  bulletin  published  by  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  Carl  E. 
Lee,  assistant  chief  dairy  manufacturer,  says: 

"The  old  methods  of  putting  milk  in  shallow  pans  in  a  cool  place, 
or  in  deep  cans  in  a  tank  of  cold  water,  are  still  in  use,  but  not  all  the 
cream  is  recovered  by  these  methods.  However,  they  are  more  satis- 
factory than  the  so-called  water  separator,  which  is  nothing  but  a 
fraud — a  piece  of  apparatus  deceiving  to  the  user.  *  *  *  By  this 
hydraulic,  or  water  separator,  from  one-fifth  to  one-fourth  of  the  butter 
fat  is  lost.  Skim  milk  of  low  feeding  value  is  obtained  and  the  cream 
is  thin  and  often  contaminated  with  all  the  impurities  of  the  water. 
*  *  *  *  The  most  satisfactory  method  of  obtaining  cream  from  milk 
on  the  farm  is  by  the  use  of  a  standard  make  of  hand  separator.  The 
cost  of  such  a  machine  may  seem  high,  but  when  the  amount  of  butter 
fat  is  compared  with  the  butter  fat  obtained  from  the  same  milk  by 
other  methods,  one  can  easily  figure  ho\v  long  it  will  take  to  save  the 
cost  of  the  machine." 


Butter  Lost  in  Skim  Milk  from  One  Cow  in  One  Year 


(— jr-^PTT-jr- 

ii?-.:H    ir— ir~ 


»       H       I 

1C3E31Z3 


Courtesy  Purdue  Experiment  Station 


Hand  Separator 

Loss  of  Butter 

1.2  Ibs. 


Deep  Setting 

Loss  of  Butter 

10.1  Ibs. 


Shallow  Pan 

Loss  of  Butter 

26.2  Ibs. 


57 


Water  Dilution 

Loss  of  Butter 

40.5  Ibs. 


When  the  cream  separator  is  used  on  the  farm,  the  milk  can  be 
separated  immediately  after  it  is  milked  and  before  it  has  time  to  absorb 
objectionable  taints  and  flavors  from  outside  sources.  Cream  that  has 
been  separated  on  the  farm  and  properly  cared  for  will  make  the  very 
best  grade  of  butter.  With  gravity  and  dilution  methods  of  separation, 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  richness  of  the  cream.  It  will  be  thin  or 
thick,  according  to  temperature,  time  of  year,  length  of  time  the  cows 
have  been  milking,  and  the  breed  of  the  cows  milked.  The  per  cent  of 
butter  fat  in  separator  cream  can  be  very  closely  regulated  at  all  times, 
and  a  heavy  or  thick  cream  may  be  had  as  desired. 

Government  tests  have  proved  that  it  costs  from  10  to  15  cents  per 
hundred  pounds  to  haul  milk  the  average  distance  of  six  miles  to  and 
from  the  creamery.  This  means  a  loss  of  from  2^  to  5  cents  per  pound 
on  butter  fat.  Farmers  who  have  been  hauling  milk  to  the  creameries 
know  that  these  figures  tell  only  part  of  the  story.  Milk  must  be 
delivered  every  day.  Very  often  it  will  mean  many  dollars  to  the  farmer 
to  have  at  work  in  the  field  the  team  which  he  must  send  to  the  creamery 
with  the  milk.  Besides,  there  is  the  unpleasantness  of  having  to  go  to 
the  creamery  day  after  day,  through  all  kinds  of  weather,  and  over  all 
kinds  of  road.  In  the  spring  of  the  year,  when  the  roads  are  bad,  the 
wear  and  tear  on  wagons  and  harness  often  amounts  to  as  much  as 
the  milk  is  worth. 

Cream  can  be  delivered  two  or  three  times  a  week  in  summer,  and  in 
winter  one  trip  a  week  is  often  enough.  The  expense  of  hauling  cream 
can  be  reduced  to  very  little  by  having  one  man  do  the  hauliug  for  a 
number  of  farmers. 


FEEDING  VALUE  OF  SEPARATOR  SKIM  MILK 

Many  careful  tests  have  been  made  to  determine  the  feeding  value  of 
skim  milk,  as  it  is  now  generally  recognized  that  separator  skim  milk 
has  many  advantages  over  gravity  or  dilution  skim  milk  for  feeding 
calves  and  pigs. 

The  West  Virginia  Ex- 
periment Station  has  found 
that  with  eggs  selling  at  20 
to  25  cents  per  dozen,  skim 
milk  used  for  moistening  the 
mash  fed  to  the  chickens  has 
a  value  of  2  cents  per  quart. 

In  "Feeds  and  Feeding, ' ' 
Professor  W.  A.  Henry  says: 
"The  fat  of  milk  has  too 
high  a  market  value  with 
the  dairyman  to  be  used  for 
calf  feeding,  and  experience 
has  shown  that  dairy  stock 
of  the  highest  quality  can 
be  produced  from  feeding  _. 

3     Clean,  sweet,  separator  skim  milk  is  the  best  for 
Skim  milk.  dairy  calves 

58 


Pigs  thrive  on  separator  skim  milk 


Skim  milk  separated  on  the  farm  immediately  after  milking  will  be 
clean,  warm  and  sweet,  and  in  the  best  condition  for  feeding.  It  is 
impossible  to  secure  skim  milk  of  this  kind  without  the  cream  separator. 
Gravity  skim  milk  will  be  cold  and  often  sour  before  it  can  be  fed. 
Even  if  it  is  sweet,  to  get  the  best  results  it  must  be  warmed  before  feed- 
ing, which  will  cause  trouble  and  a  waste  of  time. 

Dilution  skim  milk  is  so  thin  because  of  the  water  with  which  it  is 
diluted  that  it  has  practically  no  feeding  value,  and  calves  will  grow  thin 
drinking  it. 

Regarding  factory  skim  milk,  Professor  D.  H.  Otis  says  in  a  Bulletin 
issued  by  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station:  "Good  calves  can  be 
raised  on  factory  skim  milk,  provided  the  creamery  is  careful  to  receive 
only  good  sweet  milk,  so  that  the  skim  milk  may  be  kept  sweet  until 
consumed  by  the  calves.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that 
unless  factory  skim  milk  is  heated  sufficiently  to  destroy  germ  life,  it  is 
not  only  difficult  to  keep  it  sweet,  but  it  may  spread  disease,  especially 
tuberculosis,  to  the  calves  and  hogs  kept  on  the  farm. 

"It  is  much  less  work  when  the  hand  separator  is  used  and  the  calves 
are  assured  of  a  more  uniform  feed.  The  calves  are  usually  fed  immedi- 
ately after  separating,  while  the  milk  is  still  warm  and  sweet.  This 
uniformity  of  the  ration  and  freedom  from  outside  infection  in  milk  is 
exceedingly  important,  and  the  hand  separator  deserves  much  credit  for 
making  this  possible  and  practicable." 

Professor  W.  A.  Henry  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  College  has 
said:  "The  dairyman  who  sells  butter  and  feeds  the  skim  milk  to  farm 
animals  parts  with  an  insignificant  amount  of  fertility.  When  cheese  is 
made,  if  the  whey  is  returned  to  the  farm  a  considerable  proportion  of 
mineral  matter  is  conserved,  but  most  of  the  nitrogen  is  lost.  If  whole 
milk  is  sold,  the  drain  of  fertilizing  matter  is  considerable.  These 
differences  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  in  conducting  the  various 
branches  of  dairy  farming.1' 

In  a  bulletin  published  by  the  Purdue  Experiment  Station  we  read, 
regarding  separator  skim  milk,  "It  is  perfectly  fresh  and  sweet  and  can 
be  fed  to  the  calves  while  still  warm.  It  is  generally  conceded  that 
separator  skim  milk  is  worth  about  25  cents  per  100  pounds.  The  gravity 
skim  milk  is  much  older  (12  to  30  hours),  is  cold  and  usually  sour." 

59 


HOW  THE  CREAM  SEPARATOR  OPERATES 

The  separation  of  cream  and  skim  milk  by  the  action  of  the  force  of 
gravity  is  due  to  the  difference  in  their  specific  gravities.  It  is  also  this 
same  difference  in  specific  gravity  that  makes  it  possible  to  bring  about 
separation  of  cream  and  skim  milk  in  the  centrifugal  cream  separator. 
In  fact,  the  action  of  centrifugal  force  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  gravity, 
except  that  it  works  in  a  horizontal  instead  of  vertical  direction  |ind  in 
the  I  H  C  cream  separator  bowl  is  several  thousand  times  stronger  than 
gravity. 

Centrifugal  force  is  a  force  exerted  outward  from  the  center  of  the 
separator  bowl  and  is  produced  by  revolving  the  bowl  at  a  high  rate  of 
speed.  Just  what  the  action  of  centrifugal  force  is  can  be  best  explained 
by  a  simple  and  often-used  illustration. 

When  a  ball  attached  to  the  end  of  a  string  is  swung  around  in  a 
circle,  the  ball,  because  of  its  weight,  will  exert  an  outward  pull.  The 
force  exerted  on  the  ball  which  makes  it  try  to  get  away  from  the  central 
point  around  which  it  is  whirling  is  centrifugal  force.  When  whole  milk 
enters  the  separator  bowl,  it  is  acted  upon  by  centrifugal  force  and  the 
heavy  milk  solids  are  thrown  to  the  outer  wall  of  the  bowl.  The  butter 
fat,  which  is  the  lightest  part  of  the  milk,  is  not  so  strongly  affected  and 
gathers  near  the  center  of  the  bowl  where  it  is  mixed  with  a  small  amount 
of  skim  milk  and  forms  cream. 

The  amount  of  centrifugal  force  exerted  outward  from  the  center  on 
the  milk  in  a  separator  bowl  is  determined  by  the  speed  and  diameter  of 
the  bowl.  As  the  diameter  of  the  bowl  is  decreased,  the  speed  at  which 
it  is  revolved  must  be  increased  or  there  will  be  loss  of  centrifugal  force. 
I  H  C  Cream  Separator  bowls  are  equipped  with  an  interior  device 
composed  of  a  tubular  milk  feeding  shaft  and  a  number  of  disks.  The 
disks  divide  the  milk  into  thin  layers  or  sheets  and  centrifugal  force  acts 
upon  each  sheet  of  milk  independently  of  the  others.  The  disks  increase 
the  capacity  of  the  bowl  and  reduce  the  speed  at  which  it  must  be  revolved 
by  eliminating  the  necessity  of  forcing  the  skim  milk  solids  through  a 
thick  wall  of  milk.  This  means  greater  durability  because  it  reduces 
the  strain  upon  the  operating  mechanism.  When  the  heavy  milk  serum  or 

skim  milk  is  thrown  to  the  outer 
edge  of  the  bowl  and  the  lighter 
fat  globules  gathered  in  the  center, 
continuous  separation  is  ac- 
complished by  the  inflowing 
milk,   forcing    the    already 
separated  skim  milk    and 
cream  up  and  out  through 
their  respective  outlets    in 
the  top  of  the  bowl. 
At  the    bowl   outlets 
they    are    caught    in 
skim  milk  and  cream 
covers  and  conveyed 
to  cans  or  other  re- 
ceptacles   by  means 

Healthy  calves  are  found  where  separator  skim  milk  is  fed      of  spouts. 


THE  BLUEBELL  CREAM  SEPARATOR 


The  Bluebell  Cream  Separator  is  a  gear  drive  machine.  Tower  is 
transmitted  from  the  crank  to  the  gears  by  means  of  a  divided  vertical 
steel  shaft  and  the  bowl  revolved  by  a  simple  set  of  spiral  gears.  Briefly 
stated  some  of  the  most  valuable  features  of  this  separator  are  : — 

The  Bluebell  is  a  remarkably  close 
skimmer  because  the  bowl  is  built  on 
the  right  principle  and  contains  the 
best  interior  device  ever  manu- 
factured. 

The  highest  grade  of  steel  has  been 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  gears 
and  spindles.  This  assurance  of 
durability  in  the  wearing  parts  is 
accentuated  by  phosphor  bronze 
bushings. 

It  is  light-running  and  its  light- 
running  qualities  are  not  gained  by 
light,  cheap  construction.  It  is  fric 
tion  that  causes  most  separators  to 
require  a  large  amount  of  power. 
In  the  Bluebell,  friction  has  been 
reduced  -to  a  minimum  and  con- 
sequently it  is  light-running.  The 
gears  are  entirely  protected  from 
dust,  grit,  and  milk,  and  at  the  same 
time  are  easily  accessible. 

The  Bluebell  has  the  strongest, 
simplest,  and  most  effective  top  or 

bowl  spindle  bearing  ever  used  in  a  separator.  Instead  of  having  a  num- 
ber of  small,  weak  springs,  this  bearing  has  only  one  large,  strong  spring, 
which  absorbs  all  vibrations  due  to  starting  and  stopping. 

The  supply  can  is  low  and  easily  tilled.  The  crank  shaft  is  conven- 
iently placed  and  does  not  force  the  operator  into  an  awkward,  uncom- 
fortable position, 

The  bowl  is  equipped  with  a  dirt  arrester  chamber,  which  removes  all 
undissolved  impurities  before  separation  begins.  As  foreign  substances 
are  not  spread  all  over  the  interior  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  keep  the  bowl 
clean.  This  feature  also  insures  a  high  grade  of  cream.  The  interior  of 
the  Bluebell  bowl  does  not  contain  any  of  those  forms  of  intricate  con- 
struction which  make  the  cleaning  of  other  separators  so  difficult. 


Bluebell  Cream  Separators  are  made  in  four  sizes: 

No.  1  —  Capacity,  350  Ibs.  of  milk  per  hour 
No.  2—        "          450    " 
No.  3—         "          650    " 
No.  4—         "          850    " 


61 


THE  DAIRYMAID  CREAM  SEPARATOR 

One  of   the   features   of   the    Dairymaid   Cream   Separator  that   has 
proved  remarkably  efficient,  is  the  method  of  transmitting  power  from 
the  crank  to  the  gears.     Power  is  transmitted  to  the  gears  by  means  of  a  ] 
drive  chain  which  operates  over  a  large  sprocket  on  the  crank  shaft  and  I 

a  small  sprocket  on  the  inter-  j 
mediate  gear  shaft.  The  chain  j 
drive  for  separators  has  been  in 
use  in  Europe  for  many  years, 
but  was  first  used  in  this  country 
in  the  Dairymaid.  The  fact  that 
many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  copy  the  chain  drive  principle 
of  the  Dairymaid,  is  good  evi- 
dence of  the  desirability  of  a  ma- 
chine so  equipped.  The  advan- 
tages of  the  chain  drive  are,  that 
the  wear  on  the  gears  is  consider- 
ably -reduced,  the  machine  runs 
smoothly  and  noiselessly  and,  be- 
cause of  the  difference  in  the  size 
of  the  sprockets,  the  crank  turns 
easily. 

Another  distinguishing  feature 
of  this  separator  is  that  it  has  a 
double  oiling  system.  The  gears 
and  lower  bearings  are  oiled  by 
an  oil  bath  and  the  neck  bearing 
is  oiled  by  a  sight  feed  oiler 
located  on  the  front  of  the  bowl 
housing.  Oil  from  this  oiler  flows  down  through  the  neck  bearing, 
lubricating  it  and  renewing  the  supply  of  oil  in  the  oil  bath. 

>The  bowl  spindle  or  neck  bearing  of  this  separator  is  very  simple  and 
practically  trouble  proof. 

Other  features  of  this  separator  which  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
Bluebell  Cream  Separator  are,  the  interior  device  in  the  bowl,  including 
the  dirt  arrester  chamber,  the  easy  cleaning  qualities  of  the  bowl  due  to 
the  absence  of  intricate  forms  of  construction,  the  use  of  phosphor 
bronze  bushings,  low  supply  can,  and  conveniently  located  crank. 


Dairymaid  Cream  Separators  are  made  in  four  sizes: 

No.  1  —  Capacity,  350  Ibs.  of  milk  per  hour 
No.  2 —  450    " 

No.  3—        "  650    " 

No.  4  —        "  850    " 


THE  LILY  CREAM  SEPARATOR 


A  few  of  the  features  which  cotttr^ta^  toward  making  tihe  Lily  a 
separator  that  will  prove  one  of  the  best  investments  a  farmer  can  make 
in  this  line  are: 

The  Lily  bowl  has  an  interior  device  composed  of  a  number  of  disks 

and  a  milk-feeding  shaft.  The  milk- 
feeding  shaft  used  in  this  bowl  is  a 
decided  improvement  over  any  that 
has  been  used  in  other  separators 
during  past  years.  The  milk-feeding 
shaft  of  the  Lily  is  so  designed  that 
the  entire  skimming  surface  of  the 
disks  is  utilized,  whereas  in  the  old 
type,  where  the  milk  is  fed  through 
openings  in  the  'ends  of  the  wings 
nearly  one-half  of  the  skimming  sur- 
face of  the  disks  is  lost.  The  advan- 
tages of  a  disk  bowl  have  been  so 
often  demonstrated  that  every  person 
who  has  given  separator  construc- 
tion even  a  very  little  consideration 
knows  that  this  is  the  only  correct 
principle  upon  which  to  build  a 
separator  bowl. 

The  Lily  cream  separator  is  not 
excessively  heavy  nor  clumsy,  yet 
every  part  has  more  than  necessary 
strength  and  wearing  quality  to  with- 
stand years  of  continuous  use. 

One  of  the  most  desirable  features  of  a  cream  separator  is  simplicity. 
A  separator  that  is  simple  in  design  will  not  get  out  of  order  easily  nor 
require  numerous  adjustments.  An  examination  of  the  Lily  will  show 
that  it  is  simple  and  has  very  few  parts. 

The  Lily  is  an  easy,  smooth-running  separator,  and  very  little  effort 
is  required  on  the  part  of  the  operator  to  turn  the  crank. 

Every  part  of  the  interior  of  the  Lily  bowl  presents  a  plain,  smooth 
surface  to  which  dirt  and  milk  do  not  adhere,  and  consequently  it  is  an 
easy  matter  to  wash  this  bowl  and  keep  it  thoroughly  clean. 

No  cream  is  permitted  to  collect  in  the  tubular  shaft,  which  makes 
this  part  also  easy  to  clean. 

The  oiling  facilities  provide  for  a  thorough  lubrication  of  all  moving 
parts.  The  gears  run  in  a  bath  of  oil,  and  even  the  neck  bearing  is 
lubricated  by  the  oil  bath.  This  forms  the  most  practical  and  reliable 
method  of  lubrication  ever  used  on  a  separator. 

The  supply  can  and  crank  are  conveniently  located  for  easy  filling 
and  turning.     The  Lily  Cream  Separator  is  made  in  four  sizes: 
No.  1  —  Capacity,  350  Ibs.  of  milk  per  hour. 
No.  2—  450    " 

No.  3—        "          650    " 
No.  4—        "          850    " 


Don't. support  yo\irs  cows  —  let  them  support  you. 


The  farmer   who  reads  does  not  have  to  look  for  profits  with  a 
microscope.  

Success  in  farming- is  only  attainable  through  study  and  application 
of  scientific  principles. 

Anybody  can  milk  cows,  but  it  takes  a  man  with  brains  to  milk 
the  right  sized  profit  out  of  them. 


No  man  knows  all  there  is  to  be  known  about  farming — let  us  all 
get  together  and  learn  from  each  other. 


The   amount  of  brains  you   put  into  your  work  determines  the 
amount  of  pleasure  and  profit  you  will  get  out  of  it. 


Agricultural  progress  has  been  made  by  men  who  were  not  satisfied 
with  what  was  good  enough  for  their  grandfathers. 


Don't  keep  three  cows  to  produce  12,000  pounds  of  milk  when  two 
better  cows  will  do  it  with  the  same  amount  of  feed. 


There  is  no  branch  of  agriculture  that  takes  as  little  fertility  from 
the  soil  and  at  the  same  time  returns  as  good  a  profit  for  the  farmer 
as  dairy  farming. 

The  man  who  learns  to  get  two  pounds  of  butter  from  the  same 
amount  of  feed  that  before  produced  only  one,  is  going  to  ge4:  from 
under  the  mortgage  quick. 

Wherever  the  farm  products  have  been  turned  into  butter  for  a 
number  of  years,  there  has  been  a  steady  increase  in  the  crop  pro 
ducing  capacity  of  the  soil. 

The  successful  man  in  any  business  is  the  one  who  can  and  will 
make  use  of  the  experience  of  others— who  has  the  courage  to  discard 
his  own  errors  and  adopt  the  truths  discovered  by  others. 


A  man  who  would  annually  sell  a  few  acres  of  his  farm  instead  of 
cultivating  it  would  be  considered  a  very  poor  farmer.  Yet,  this  is 
just  what  is  being  done  when  crops  which  take  a  large  amount  of 
fertilitv  from  the  soil  are  sold  off  the  farm. 


C4 


Headers 
Header  Binders 

HAY  MACHINES 

Mowers  Sweep  Rakes 

Rakes  Stackers 

Tedders  Side  Delivery  Rakes 

Hay  Loaders  Hay  Presses 

Combined  Sweep  Rakes  and  Stackers 

CORN   MACHINES 

Planters  Pickers 

Cultivators  Shellers 

Binders  Corn  Stalk  Rakes 

Huskers  and  Shredders 

TILLAGE 

Disk  Harrows         Spring-Tooth  Harrows 
Cultivators  Peg-Tooth  Harrows 

Combination  Harrows 

GENERAL  LINE 


Auto  Wagons 

Feed  Grinders 

Cream  Separators 

Binder  Twine 

Oil  and  Gas  Engines    Rope 

Kerosene-Gasoline  Tractors 
Farm  Wagons  and  Trucks 


Threshers 
Grain  Drills 
Manure  Spreaders 
Knife  Grinders 


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